Pulse detection using patient physiological signals

ABSTRACT

The presence of a cardiac pulse in a patient is determined by evaluating physiological signals in the patient. In one embodiment, a medical device evaluates optical characteristics of light transmitted into a patient to ascertain physiological signals, such as pulsatile changes in general blood volume proximate a light detector module. Using these features, the medical device determines whether a cardiac pulse is present in the patient. The medical device may also be configured to report whether the patient is in a VF, VT, asystole, or PEA condition, in addition to being in a pulseless condition, and prompt different therapies, such as chest compressions, rescue breathing, defibrillation, and PEA-specific electrotherapy, depending on the analysis of the physiological signals. Auto-capture of a cardiac pulse using pacing stimuli is further provided.

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No.12/105,207, filed Apr. 17, 2008, which was a divisional of U.S.application Ser. No. 10/654,270, filed Sep. 2, 2003, now abandoned,which was continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/229,320,filed Aug. 26, 2002, now abandoned. The entire content of each of theseapplications is incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD

The invention relates generally to the detection of cardiac activity ina patient, and more specifically, to the detection of a cardiac pulseand the use of pulse detection in delivering therapy.

BACKGROUND

The presence of cardiac pulse, or heartbeat, in a patient is generallydetected by palpating the patient's neck and sensing changes in thevolume of the patient's carotid artery due to blood pumped from thepatient's heart. A graph representative of the physical expansion andcontraction of a patient's carotid artery during two consecutive pulses,or heartbeats, is shown at the top of FIG. 1. When the heart'sventricles contract during a heartbeat, a pressure wave is sentthroughout the patient's peripheral circulation system. The carotidpulse shown in FIG. 1 rises with the ventricular ejection of blood atsystole and peaks when the pressure wave from the heart reaches amaximum. The carotid pulse falls off again as the pressure subsidestoward the end of each pulse.

The opening and closing of the patient's heart valves during a heartbeatcauses high-frequency vibrations in the adjacent heart wall and bloodvessels. These vibrations can be heard in the patient's body as heartsounds. A conventional phonocardiogram (PCG) transducer placed on apatient converts the acoustical energy of the heart sounds to electricalenergy, resulting in a PCG waveform that may be recorded and displayed,as shown by the graph in the upper middle portion of FIG. 1.Conventional methods for detecting and displaying a PCG waveform areknown in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,687,738 and 4,548,204.

As indicated by the PCG waveform shown in FIG. 1, a typical heartbeatproduces two main heart sounds. The first heart sound, denoted S1, isgenerated by vibration generally associated with the closure of thetricuspid and mitral valves at the beginning of systole. Typically, theheart sound S1 is about 14 milliseconds long and contains frequencies upto approximately 500 Hz. The second heart sound, denoted S2, isgenerally associated with vibrations resulting from the closure of theaortic and pulmonary valves at the end of systole. While the duration ofthe second heart sound S2 is typically shorter than the first heartsound S1, the spectral bandwidth of the heart sound S2 is typicallylarger than that of S1.

An electrocardiogram (ECG) waveform describes the electrical activity ofa patient's heart. The graph in the lower middle portion of FIG. 1illustrates an example of an ECG waveform for two heartbeats andcorresponds in time with the carotid pulse and PCG waveform. Referringto the first shown heartbeat, the portion of the ECG waveformrepresenting depolarization of the atrial muscle fibers is referred toas the “P” wave. Depolarization of the ventricular muscle fibers iscollectively represented by the “Q.” “R,” and “S” waves of the ECGwaveform. Finally, the portion of the waveform representingrepolarization of the ventricular muscle fibers is known as the “T”wave. Between heartbeats, the ECG waveform returns to an isopotentiallevel.

Fluctuations in a patient's transthoracic impedance also correlate withblood flow that occurs with each cardiac pulse wave. The bottom graph ofFIG. 1 illustrates an example of a filtered impedance signal for apatient in which fluctuations in impedance correspond in time with thecarotid pulse, the PCG, and ECG waveforms.

The lack of a detectable cardiac pulse in a patient is a strongindicator of cardiac arrest. Cardiac arrest is a life-threateningmedical condition in which the patient's heart fails to provide enoughblood flow to support life. During cardiac arrest, the electricalactivity may be disorganized (ventricular fibrillation), too rapid(ventricular tachycardia), absent (asystole), or organized at a normalor slow heart rate without sufficient blood flow (pulseless electricalactivity).

A caregiver may apply a defibrillation shock to a patient in ventricularfibrillation (VF) or ventricular tachycardia (VT) to stop theunsynchronized or rapid electrical activity and allow a perfusing rhythmto return. External defibrillation, in particular, is provided byapplying a strong electric pulse to the patient's heart throughelectrodes placed on the surface of the patient's body. If a patientlacks a detectable pulse but has an ECG rhythm of asystole or pulselesselectrical activity (PEA), conventional therapy may includecardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), which causes some blood flow.

Before providing defibrillation therapy or CPR to a patient, a caregivermust first confirm that the patient is in cardiac arrest. In general,external defibrillation is suitable only for patients that areunconscious, apneic (i.e., not breathing), pulseless, and in VF or VT.Medical guidelines indicate that the presence or absence of a pulse in apatient should be determined within 10 seconds. See, “American HeartGuidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and EmergencyCardiovascular Care, Part 3: Adult Basic Life Support,” Circulation 102suppl. I:I-22-I-59, 2000.

Unfortunately, under the pressures of an emergency situation, it can beextremely difficult for first-responding caregivers with little or nomedical training to consistently and accurately detect a cardiac pulsein a patient (e.g., by palpating the carotid artery) in a short amountof time such as 10 seconds. See, Eberle B., et al., “Checking theCarotid Pulse Diagnostic Accuracy of First Responders in Patients Withand Without a Pulse” Resuscitation 33: 107-116, 1996.

Nevertheless, because time is of the essence in treating cardiac arrest,a caregiver may rush the preliminary evaluation, incorrectly concludethat the patient has no pulse, and proceed to provide therapy, such asdefibrillation, when in fact the patient has a pulse. Alternatively, acaregiver may incorrectly conclude that the patient has a pulse anderroneously withhold defibrillation therapy. A need therefore exists fora method and apparatus that quickly, accurately, and automaticallydetermines the presence of a pulse in a patient, particularly to prompta caregiver to provide appropriate therapy in an emergency situation.

SUMMARY

The present invention provides methods and apparatus for determining thepresence of a cardiac pulse in a patient by evaluating physiologicalsignals in the patient. In some embodiments, a medical deviceconstructed according to the invention makes use of optical, i.e.,light-based, techniques to ascertain one or more physiological signalsindicative of a cardiac pulse. In particular, one or more physiologicalsignals may be derived from analysis of a light detection signalgenerated by an light detection module. In other embodiments,physiological signals may be derived from different techniques. In eachcase, a processor is configured to evaluate the physiological signal fora feature indicative of the presence of a cardiac pulse. Using thesefeatures, the medical device determines whether a cardiac pulse ispresent in the patient. The medical device may further include a displaythat is used to automatically report whether a cardiac pulse is presentin the patient. Exemplary embodiments of the invention discussed hereinuse physiological signals derived from light detection signals,phonocardiogram (PCG) signals, electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, andpatient impedance signals. Also, as noted herein, embodiments of theinvention may use signals obtained from piezoelectric sensors and/oraccelerometers placed on the patient's body.

A feature indicating the presence of a pulse may be obtained fromevaluation of temporal parameters or spectral parameters in thephysiological signal data generated based on a light detection signal.In one aspect, temporal energy may be evaluated by estimatinginstantaneous and background energies in the signal data and comparingthe instantaneous energy with the background energy. Energy in thesignal data may also be calculated and compared with a threshold energy.In another aspect, spectral energy may be evaluated by locating a peakenergy value in the energy spectrum and comparing the peak energy valuewith a threshold energy value. Alternatively, or in addition, thefrequency of the peak energy value in the spectrum may be compared witha threshold frequency.

In embodiments of the invention that evaluate ECG data, a featureindicative of the presence of a cardiac pulse may be determined based atleast in part on the presence of a ventricular complex, such as a QRScomplex, in the ECG data. Moreover, the presence of a ventricularcomplex in the ECG data may be used to select time segments of data fromone or more of the other physiological signals that correspond in timewith the ventricular complex. Identifying and evaluating physiologicalsignal data based on the presence of a ventricular complex helps focusthe evaluation of the physiological signal data to that data which aremore likely to indicate the presence of a pulse.

Features thus obtained from the physiological signal data are evaluatedto determine whether a cardiac pulse is present in the patient. Amedical device constructed in accordance with the invention may furtherinclude a defibrillation pulse generator that is configured toautomatically prepare a defibrillation pulse for delivery to the patientif processing circuitry of the medical device determines that a cardiacpulse is not present in the patient. Alternatively, or in addition, themedical device may be configured to provide a message on its displayprompting application of defibrillation electrodes to the patient if acardiac pulse is determined not present. Further, a message may bedisplayed prompting delivery of chest compressions or cardiopulmonaryresuscitation to the patient if a cardiac pulse is determined notpresent in the patient. A graph may be provided on the display showing arepresentation of at least one of the physiological signals obtainedfrom the patient.

Another embodiment of the present invention is an electrotherapy devicethat includes electrodes adapted to sense a physiological signal, suchas a PCG signal, in a patient. Processing circuitry in theelectrotherapy device is configured to analyze the PCG signal for afeature indicative of the presence of a cardiac pulse and determinewhether a cardiac pulse is present based on the feature. If a cardiacpulse is determined not present, the processing circuitry prompts thedelivery of electrotherapy to the patient. Where the electrotherapy isdefibrillation therapy, the processing circuitry may be configured toreport the return of spontaneous circulation in the patient if a cardiacpulse is determined to be present after the delivery of thedefibrillation therapy.

The electrotherapy device may further sense ECG signals in the patientand analyze the ECG signals for ventricular fibrillation (VF),ventricular tachycardia (VT), asystole, and pulseless electricalactivity (PEA). In one aspect, if the patient is determined to bepulseless and experiencing ventricular tachycardia, the electrotherapydevice may prompt the delivery of defibrillation therapy. In anotheraspect, if the patient is determined to be pulseless and not in a VF,VT, or asystole condition, the processing circuitry may prompt deliveryof electrotherapy that is specifically designed for pulseless electricalactivity. The processing circuitry may also be configured to reportwhether the patient is in a VF, VT, asystole, or PEA condition, inaddition to being in a pulseless condition.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the electrotherapy device alsoincludes electrodes adapted to receive an impedance-sensing signal thathas been communicated through the patient. The PCG and impedance signalsare each analyzed for features indicative of the presence of a cardiacpulse in the patient. The electrotherapy device uses these features todetermine the presence of a cardiac pulse. The impedance signal may alsobe used to determine the presence of respiration in the patient. Ifrespiration is determined not present in the patient, the processingcircuitry may prompt delivery of rescue breathing. If the patient isalso determined to be pulseless, the processing circuitry may prompt thedelivery of chest compressions or full cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

Yet another embodiment of the present invention provides an apparatusand method for delivering electrotherapy to a patient in which theelectrotherapy is comprised of pacing stimuli and seeks capture of acardiac pulse in the patient. The method includes delivering a pacingstimulus to the patient, sensing a physiological signal in the patientfrom the surface of the patient's body, determining whether a cardiacpulse occurred in the patient after delivery of the pacing stimulus, andincreasing the current of further pacing stimuli to be delivered to thepatient if a cardiac pulse did not occur in the patient after deliveryof the pacing stimulus. For example, the physiological signal may be aPCG signal that is analyzed for the presence of a heart sound, theelectrotherapy device determining whether a cardiac pulse occurred inthe patient based on the presence of a heart sound. Consistent captureexhibited by a cardiac pulse may be required before making a finaldetermination that capture of a cardiac pulse has been achieved.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method comprisingtransmitting light into a patient, receiving light that has beentransmitted into the patient, generating a light detection signal inresponse to the received light, processing the light detection signalover a period of time to detect a trend in pulsatile changes in bloodvolume, and providing at least one of treatment and informationconcerning treatment based on the trend in pulsatile changes bloodvolume.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method comprisingtransmitting first light into a patient at a first wavelength,transmitting second light into a patient at a second wavelength,receiving the first and second light that has been transmitted into thepatient, generating a light detection signal in response to the receivedlight, and processing the light detection signal over a period of timeto detect a physiological parameter indicative of a cardiac pulse.

In an added embodiment, the invention provides a medical devicecomprising a light source to transmit light into a patient, a sensor toreceive light that has been transmitted into the patient, a circuit togenerate a light detection signal in response to the received light, anda processor to process the light detection signal over a period of timeto detect a trend in pulsatile changes in the flow of blood, and provideat least one of treatment and information concerning treatment based onthe trend in pulsatile changes blood volume.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a medical devicecomprising a light source to transmit a first light into a patient at afirst wavelength and a second light into the patient at a secondwavelength, a sensor to receive the first and second light that has beentransmitted into the patient, a circuit to generate a light detectionsignal in response to the received light, a processor to process thelight detection signal to detect a physiological parameter indicative ofpresence of a cardiac pulse, and provide at least one of treatment andinformation concerning treatment based on physiological parameter.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method comprisingapplying a defibrillation electrode with a pulse detector to a firstposition of a patient, performing a first pulse detection, detaching thepulse detector from the defibrillation electrode, placing the detachedpulse detector at a second position of the patient, and performing asecond pulse detection.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a medical devicecomprising a defibrillation electrode, and a pulse detector detachablycoupled to the defibrillation electrode.

In an added embodiment, the invention provides a medical devicecomprising defibrillation electrode; and a light source for a pulsedetector embedded in the defibrillation electrode.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method comprisingtransmitting light into a patient at a first intensity, receiving lighttransmitted into the patient at the first intensity to generate a firstlight detection signal, transmitting light into the patient at a secondintensity, receiving light transmitted into the patient at the secondintensity to generate a second light detection signal, processing thelight detection signals to detect a physiological parameter indicativeof presence of a cardiac pulse, and providing at least one of treatmentand information concerning treatment based on the physiologicalparameter.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a medical devicecomprising a light source that transmits light into a patient at a firstintensity and a second intensity, a light detector that receives lighttransmitted into the patient at the first intensity to generate a firstlight detection signal, and receives light transmitted into the patientat the second intensity to generate a second light detection signal, anda processor that processes the light detection signals to detect aphysiological parameter indicative of presence of a cardiac pulse, andprovides at least one of treatment and information concerning treatmentbased on the physiological parameter.

The invention further contemplates medical devices capable ofimplementing the foregoing methods, as well as computer-readable mediastoring instructions sufficient to cause a processor to implementvarious aspects of the methods.

Other applications and advantages of the present invention are apparent.For example, the invention may be implemented in an automated externaldefibrillator (AED). Embodiments of the invention intended for trainedmedical personnel may provide additional displays of the patient'sphysiological signal data for review.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth inthe accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features,objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thedescription and drawings, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a pictorial diagram of a carotid pulse waveform, aphonocardiogram (PCG) waveform, an electrocardiogram (ECG) waveform, anda filtered transthoracic impedance signal for two consecutiveheartbeats.

FIG. 2 is a pictorial diagram of a defibrillator and electrodesconstructed in accordance with the present invention and attached to apatient.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the major components of a defibrillator asshown in FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of a pulse detection process performed by adefibrillator as shown in FIG. 2, in which a temporal energy analysis ofPCG data is performed.

FIG. 5A is a graph illustrating a PCG waveform of raw PCG data collectedfrom a patient.

FIG. 5B is a graph illustrating a filtered version of the PCG waveformshown in FIG. 5A.

FIG. 5C is a graph illustrating an instantaneous energy waveform and thebackground energy waveform computed from the data in the PCG waveformshown in FIG. 5B in accordance with the pulse detection process shown inFIG. 4.

FIG. 5D is a graph illustrating the results of a comparison of theinstantaneous energy and the background energy shown in FIG. 5C inaccordance with the pulse detection process shown in FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of another pulse detection process performed bya defibrillator as shown in FIG. 2, in which a spectral peak frequencyanalysis of PCG data is performed.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating two energy spectra calculated from PCGdata using a maximum entropy method (“NMM spectra”) in accordance withthe pulse detection process shown in FIG. 6.

FIG. 8A is a graph illustrating a PCG waveform of raw PCG data collectedfrom a patient.

FIG. 8B is a graph illustrating a series of frequencies of second peakenergy values located in MEM spectra computed in accordance with thepulse detection process shown in FIG. 6 using the PCG data shown in FIG.8A, in which the frequency values at or below a frequency of 100 Hz aremarked with an “x”.

FIG. 8C is a graph illustrating a series of second peak energy valueslocated in MEM spectra computed in accordance with the pulse detectionprocess shown in FIG. 9 using the PCG data shown in FIG. 8A, in whichthe second peak energy values exceeding 0 dB are marked with an “x”.

FIG. 9 is a flow diagram illustrating another pulse detection processperformed by a defibrillator as shown in FIG. 2, in which a spectralpeak energy analysis is performed.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram illustrating yet another pulse detectionprocess performed by a defibrillator as shown in FIG. 2 thatincorporates features of the pulse detection processes shown in FIGS. 4,6 and 9.

FIG. 11 is a flow diagram of a pulse detection process performed by adefibrillator as shown in FIG. 2, in which an analysis of impedancesignal data is performed.

FIG. 12 is a flow diagram of a pulse rate analysis performed with thepulse detection process shown in FIG. 11.

FIG. 13 is a flow diagram of another pulse detection process performedin accordance with the present invention in which an impedance signalpattern analysis is performed without an ECG signal analysis.

FIG. 14 is a flow diagram of a pulse detection process of the presentinvention that analyzes multiple physiological signals, in this caseimpedance and heart sound signals, to determine the presence of acardiac pulse.

FIG. 15 is a flow diagram of a procedure implemented by a defibrillatoras shown in FIG. 2 that incorporates a pulse detection process providedby the present invention.

FIG. 16 is a flow diagram of another procedure implemented by adefibrillator as shown in FIG. 2 that incorporates a pulse detectionprocess provided by the present invention.

FIG. 17 is a flow diagram of still another procedure implemented by adefibrillator as shown in FIG. 2 that incorporates a pulse detectionprocess provided by the present invention.

FIG. 18 is a flow diagram of an auto-capture detection process forcardiac pacing that uses a pulse detection process of the presentinvention.

FIG. 19 is a flow diagram of a patient condition advisory process foruse in a medical device that incorporates a pulse detection process ofthe present invention.

FIG. 20 is a block diagram of a defibrillator incorporating an opticalpulse detector with multiple light sources.

FIG. 21 is a block diagram illustrating a defibrillator incorporating anoptical pulse detector with a single light source.

FIG. 22 is a block diagram of a defibrillator incorporating an opticalpulse detector and a temperature sensor.

FIG. 23 is a diagram of a defibrillator incorporating an optical pulsedetector with an optical pulse detector attached to a defibrillationelectrode.

FIG. 24 is a block diagram of a defibrillator incorporating an opticalpulse detector that is detachable from a defibrillation electrode.

FIG. 25 is a graph illustrating a light detection signal with a dccomponent.

FIG. 26 is a flow diagram illustrating a technique for cardiac pulsedetection based on a light detection signal.

FIG. 27 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device to indicate conditions of a patient or therapy to bedelivered to the patient based on the absence of pulsatile blood flow asdetected via an optical pulse detector.

FIG. 28 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device to report the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) ina patient after delivery of a defibrillation shock to the patient.

FIG. 29 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device to deliver pacing therapy to a patient.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention may be implemented in a variety of applications.One particular implementation of the present invention is adefibrillator as illustrated in FIG. 2. In FIG. 2, the defibrillator 10is shown connected to a patient 24 via defibrillation electrodes 12 and14 placed on the skin of the patient 24. The defibrillator 10 uses thedefibrillation electrodes 12 and 14 to deliver defibrillation pulses tothe patient 24. The defibrillator 10 may also use the electrodes 12 and14 to obtain ECG signals from the patient 24.

FIG. 2 further illustrates sensing devices 16 and 18 placed on thepatient 24. The sensing devices 16 and 18 are configured to detect aphysiological signal in the patient, such as acoustical energy fromheart sounds produced in the patient 24 or electrical energy thatreflects a patient characteristic such as transthoracic impedance. Inone exemplary embodiment discussed herein, the sensing devices 16 and 18are configured to detect acoustical energy while the defibrillationelectrodes 12 and 14 are used for assessing patient impedance.Acoustical energy sensed by the devices 16 and 18 is converted by thedefibrillator 10 into digital phonocardiogram (PCG) data. In otherembodiments described herein, optical, i.e., light based techniques, canbe used to detect cardiac pulses.

The sensing devices 16 and 18 may be integrated into or attached to theback of the electrodes 12 and 14. Alternatively, the sensing devices 16and 18 may be embodied in flaps 20 and 22 that are connected to theelectrodes 12 and 14. As another alternative, the sensing devices 16 and18 may be attached to the patient 24 by separate wires (not shown).

In one embodiment of the invention, the sensing devices 16 and 18 arecomprised of transducers with a piezoelectric membrane. The sensingdevices 16 and 18 may alternatively be comprised of acoustic sensorsknown in the art, such as electronic microphones used in stethoscopes.Transducers and/or microphones suitable for use in the present inventionfor detecting heart sounds are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos.4,446,873 and 5,825,895.

A device constructed in accordance with the present invention may alsouse measurements of a patient's transthoracic impedance, separately orin connection with detecting heart sounds, to determine the presence ofa cardiac pulse in a patient. In that regard, the electrodes 12, 14 maybe configured to communicate an impedance-sensing signal through thepatient 24. The impedance-sensing signal is used by the defibrillator 10to measure the patient's impedance.

A preferred embodiment of the invention uses a high-frequency, low-levelconstant current technique to measure the patient's transthoracicimpedance, though other known impedance measuring techniques may beused. A signal generator included in the defibrillator 10 produces alow-amplitude, constant current, high-frequency signal (typicallysinusoidal or square). The signal is preferably generated having afrequency in the range of 10 kHz-100 kHz and causes a current to flowbetween the electrodes 12 and 14. The current flow causes a voltage todevelop across the patient's body that is proportional to the product ofthe patient's impedance and the applied current. To calculate thepatient's impedance, the impedance measuring component in thedefibrillator 10 divides the measured sensing voltage by the appliedcurrent. Of course, since the measured voltage is linearly related tothe patient's impedance, the impedance signal data used herein may be acalculated impedance signal or the measured voltage signal.

While embodiments of the invention specifically described herein areshown implemented in a defibrillator 10, the present invention is notlimited to such specific type of application. Those of ordinary skill inthe art will recognize that the advantages of the invention maysimilarly be achieved by implementing the present invention in cardiacmonitors and other types of medical equipment that do not necessarilyprovide defibrillation therapy.

Prior to discussing various pulse detection processes that thedefibrillator 10 may implement in accordance with the present invention,a brief description of certain major components of the defibrillator 10is provided. Referring to FIG. 3, the defibrillator 10 includesdefibrillation electrodes 30 (e.g., electrodes 12, 14 described above inFIG. 2). An impedance-sensing signal generator 56 communicates animpedance-sensing signal through the patient via the electrodes 30. Asignal amplifier 32 receives the impedance-sensing signal from theelectrodes 30 and amplifies the signal to a level appropriate fordigitization by analog-to-digital (A/D) converter 36. Prior to A/Dconversion, a bandpass filter 34 filters the amplified impedance-sensingsignal to isolate the portion of the signal that most closely revealsfluctuations due to blood flow from cardiac pulses. In one embodiment ofthe invention, the bandpass filter 34 is a 1-10 Hz bandpass filter.Fluctuations in the impedance signal below 1 Hz are believed more likelyto be caused by respiration in the patient, and not blood flow.Accordingly, the bandpass filter attenuates that component of theimpedance signal. The portion of the impedance signal exceeding 10 Hz isbelieved more likely affected by surrounding noise and is likewisefiltered out.

The filtered impedance signal is delivered to the A/D converter 36 whichconverts the impedance signal into digital impedance data for furtherevaluation. The bandpass filter 34 or other filter may be provided toreduce any aliasing introduced in the impedance signal by the A/Dconverter 36. The parameters of such filtering depend, in part, on thesampling rate of the A/D converter. Bandpass and antialiasing filters,as well as A/D converters, are well-known in the art, and may beimplemented in hardware or software, or a combination of both. Forexample, a preferred embodiment uses a hardware lowpass filter on theimpedance signal before the A/D converter 36, and then a softwarehighpass filter on the digital impedance data after the AID conversion.Another preferred embodiment additionally uses a software lowpass filterafter the A/D conversion to further limit the bandwidth of the impedancesignal. The AID converter 36 delivers the digital impedance signal datato a processing circuit 38 for evaluation.

The processing circuit 38 evaluates the impedance signal data for thepresence of a cardiac pulse. The processing circuit 38 is preferablycomprised of a computer processor that operates in accordance withprogrammed instructions stored in a memory 40 that implement a pulsedetection process 42, described in more detail below. The processingcircuit 38 may also store in the memory 40 the impedance signal dataobtained from the patient, along with other event data and ECG signaldata. The memory 40 may be comprised of any type or combination of typesof storage medium, including, for example, a volatile memory such as adynamic random access memory (DRAM), a non-volatile static memory, orcomputer-readable media such as a magnetic tape or disk or opticalstorage unit (e.g., CD-RW or DVD) configured with permanent or removablemedia.

The processing circuit 38 may report the results of the pulse detectionprocess to the operator of the defibrillator 10 via a display 48. Theprocessing circuit 38 may also prompt actions (e.g., CPR) to theoperator to direct the resuscitation effort. The display 48 may include,for example, lights, audible signals, alarm, printer, tactile response,and/or display screen. The processing circuit 38 may also receive inputfrom the operator of the defibrillator 10 via an input device 46. Theinput device 46 may include one or more keys, switches, buttons, dials,or other types of user input devices.

The defibrillator 10 shown in FIG. 3 is also capable of sensing apatient's heart sounds using PCG electrodes 26 (e.g., sensing devices 16and 18, as described above in reference to FIG. 2). The PCG electrodes26 provide the sensed heart sound signals, or PCG signals, to a signalamplifier 28 that amplifies the PCG signals to a level sufficient forthe defibrillator 10 to further analyze the PCG signals.

The signal amplifier 28 provides the amplified PCG signals to ananti-aliasing filter 29. The anti-aliasing filter 29 is designed toreduce aliasing introduced in the PCG signals by the analog-to-digital(A/D) converter 36. The bandwidth of the anti-aliasing filter 29depends, in part, on the sampling rate of the A/D converter 36.Anti-aliasing filters and AID converters are well-known in the art andare readily available in off-the-shelf devices. Alternative embodimentsof the defibrillator 10 may include additional signal amplification orsignal filtering to adapt the defibrillator 10 for use in particularenvironments.

The A/D converter 36 converts the PCG signals into digitized PCG dataand provides the PCG data to the processing circuit 38 for evaluation.The processing circuit 38 evaluates the PCG data using a pulse detectionprocess described below in more detail. Programmed instructions 42stored in the memory 40 may be used to implement the pulse detectionprocess. Preferably, the processing circuit 38 also stores the PCG datain the memory 40.

The defibrillation electrodes 30 may further be used to sense thepatient's electrocardiogram (ECG) signals. ECG signals obtained from thepatient are amplified by the ECG signal amplifier 52 and filtered by theECG bandpass filter 54 in a conventional manner. The A/D converter 36converts the ECG signals into digitized ECG data and provides the ECGdata to the processing circuit 38 for evaluation.

Preferably, the processing circuit 38 evaluates the ECG signals inaccordance with programmed instructions 44 stored in the memory 40 thatcarry out an ECG evaluation process to determine whether adefibrillation shock should be provided. A suitable method fordetermining whether to apply a defibrillation shock is described in U.S.Pat. No. 4,610,254, which is assigned to the assignee of the presentinvention and incorporated by reference herein. If the processingcircuit 38 determines that immediate delivery of a defibrillation pulseis appropriate, the processing circuit 38 instructs a defibrillationpulse generator 50 to prepare to deliver a defibrillation pulse to thepatient. In that regard, the defibrillation pulse generator 50 uses anenergy source (e.g., a battery) to charge one or more defibrillationcapacitors in the defibrillator 10.

When the defibrillation charge is ready for delivery, the processingcircuit 38 advises the operator via the display 48 that thedefibrillator 10 is ready to deliver the defibrillation pulse. Theprocessing circuit 38 may ask the operator to initiate the delivery ofthe defibrillation pulse. When the operator initiates delivery of thedefibrillation pulse (e.g., via the input device 46), the processingcircuit 38 instructs the defibrillation pulse generator 50 to dischargethrough the patient the energy stored in the defibrillation capacitors(via the defibrillation electrodes 30). Alternatively, the processingcircuit 38 may cause the defibrillation pulse generator 50 toautomatically deliver the defibrillation pulse when specified conditions(e.g., expiration of a predetermined period of time, acceptable measuredpatient impedance, etc.) are met.

In some circumstances, it may be preferable to apply CPR to the patientbefore defibrillation even though cardiac conditions, such as VF, aredetected, especially for patients in whom defibrillation is initiallyunlikely to succeed. See L. Cobb et al., “Influence of CardiopulmonaryResuscitation Prior to Defibrillation in Patients With Out-of-HospitalVentricular Fibrillation” JAMA 281:1182-1188 (1999), incorporated byreference herein. Thus, if desired, the defibrillator 10 may recommendthe application of chest compressions or CPR in situations where acardiac pulse is not detected and the ECG reveals a cardiac rhythm forwhich immediate treatment by defibrillation therapy is not indicated.

While FIG. 3 illustrates certain major components of the defibrillator10, those having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that thedefibrillator 10 may contain more or fewer components than those shown.The disclosure of a preferred embodiment of the defibrillator 10 doesnot require that all of these general conventional components be shown.It will further be appreciated that aspects of the invention may beimplemented in a cardiac monitor having essentially the same componentsas the defibrillator 10 shown in FIG. 3, except that the cardiac monitordoes not have the components necessary for delivering a defibrillationpulse. Furthermore, some or all of the programmed instructions 44 may beimplemented in hardware as an alternative to software instructionsstored in the memory 40.

In one aspect, the pulse detection process conducted by the processingcircuit 38 may analyze the patient's PCG data to determine whether heartsounds S1 and/or S2 are present. The presence of heart sounds S1 and/orS2 are used as an indication of the presence of a cardiac pulse in thepatient. In another aspect, the pulse detection process may analyze thepatient's impedance signal data to determine the presence of a cardiacpulse. The pulse detection process preferably uses a portion of theimpedance-sensing signal whose frequency range is most likely to revealfluctuations indicating the presence of a cardiac pulse in the patient.Characteristic fluctuations in patient impedance associated with acardiac pulse are used as an indication of the presence of a cardiacpulse. In yet another aspect, the pulse detection process may analyzemultiple physiological signals. For example, the pulse detection processmay analyze both PCG data for heart sounds and impedance signal data forcharacteristic fluctuations in a combined manner to determine thepresence of a cardiac pulse.

FIG. 4 illustrates a pulse detection process 60 a that analyzes atemporal energy in the PCG data. The pulse detection process 60 a beginsat block 70 by obtaining PCG data from a patient. As noted earlier, PCGsignals received from PCG sensing devices (e.g., sensing devices 16 and18 in FIG. 2) placed on the patient are converted into digital PCG data.

The pulse detection process 60 a evaluates the PCG data for at least onefeature indicative of the presence of a heart sound. In blocks 72 and74, the pulse detection process 60 a preferably calculates estimates ofthe instantaneous energy and background energy in the PCG data. As shownin FIG. 4, the estimated instantaneous energy may be calculated in block72 simultaneously with the calculation of estimated background energy inblock 74. Alternatively, the calculation of estimated instantaneousenergy in block 72 may be performed prior to or after the calculation ofestimated background energy in block 74.

The estimated instantaneous energy is calculated in block 72, preferablyusing a set of PCG data obtained from the patient during a predeterminedtime window. One exemplary embodiment of the invention uses a timewindow of 20 milliseconds in length, though a longer, shorter, orshifted time window may be used for estimating the instantaneous energy.The estimated instantaneous energy may be calculated by squaring andsumming each of the PCG data values in the predetermined time window.

The estimated background energy is calculated in block 74, preferablyusing a set of PCG data obtained in an earlier predetermined timewindow. One exemplary embodiment of the invention calculates theestimated background energy using PCG data in a 100 millisecond timewindow commencing 220 milliseconds prior to the current time. The PCGdata within the earlier time window may also be squared and summed toproduce the estimated background energy. Furthermore, other time windowlengths and starting points may be used.

The estimated instantaneous energy and background energy are nextcompared at block 76 to determine a relative change in energy in the PCGdata. The relative change in energy is used by the pulse detectionprocess 60 a as a feature indicative of the presence of a heart sound.If the relative change in energy between the estimated instantaneousenergy and the estimated background energy exceeds a predeterminedthreshold, the pulse detection process 60 a determines that a heartsound was detected. Note that the background and instantaneous energiesshould previously be normalized for purposes of comparison to eachother. For example, if squaring and summing is used and one energy usesa 100 ms time window and the other energy uses a 20 ms time window, theresult of the energy using a 100 ms time window should be divided by 5so it can be properly compared against the result from a 20 ms timewindow.

As discussed earlier, the present invention uses the detection of aheart sound as an indication of the presence of a cardiac pulse in thepatient. In decision block 78, if a heart sound was detected, the pulsedetection process 60 a proceeds to block 80 and reports the presence ofa cardiac pulse in the patient (thus indicating that defibrillationtherapy for the patient is not advised). Otherwise, if a heart sound isnot detected, the pulse detection process 60 a determines in block 82that the patient is pulseless and that defibrillation therapy may beappropriate. A defibrillator 10 implementing the pulse detection process60 a may then proceed to determine whether defibrillation therapy isappropriate, e.g., by obtaining and processing ECG data from the patientas described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,254, referenced earlier andincorporated herein by reference.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the pulse detection process 60a may be repeated over a specified time interval or for a specifiednumber of repetitions to produce a series of determinations of whether aheart sound is present in the patient. The time windows for computingthe estimated instantaneous energy and background energy are shifted tocorrespond with each instance of time in which the pulse detectionprocess 60 a is performed. The pulse detection process 60 a may requirea specified number of heart sound detections before determining that acardiac pulse is present in the patient.

FIGS. 5A-5D illustrate a representative example of the processingperformed by the pulse detection process 60 a. In particular, FIG. 5A isa graph showing a PCG waveform 84 of raw PCG data as collected in block70 (FIG. 4) from a patient. As noted above, the PCG data may be filteredto reduce noise and other signal contaminants. A filtered version of thePCG waveform 86 is shown in FIG. 5B.

FIG. 5C illustrates a waveform 88 depicting an estimated instantaneousenergy in the PCG as calculated in block 72 of the pulse detectionprocess 60 a. The waveform 90 depicts an estimated background energy ascalculated in block 74 of the pulse detection process 60 a. Because thecalculation of background energy 90 uses PCG data obtained in an earliertime window than the PCG data used to calculate instantaneous energy 88,the rise and fall of the background energy waveform 90 follows the riseand fall of the instantaneous energy waveform 88.

The comparison performed in block 76 of the pulse detection process 60 amay produce a result as illustrated in FIG. 5D. During the time in whichthe instantaneous energy 88 exceeds the background energy 90 by apredetermined threshold, the comparison performed in block 76 returns a“1” (signifying the detection of a heart sound), as noted by referencenumeral 92. The predetermined threshold may be adjusted to achieve adesired sensitivity and specificity of detection. When the relativechange in energy between the instantaneous energy 88 and the backgroundenergy 90 does not exceed the predetermined threshold, the comparisonperformed in block 76 returns a “0”, as noted by reference number 94,signifying that a heart sound was not detected.

FIG. 6 illustrates another pulse detection process 60 b. As with thedetection process 60 a, the detection process 60 b analyzes PCG data todetect heart sounds in a patient. The detection process 60 b, however,focuses on a spectral energy analysis of the PCG data (as compared tothe temporal energy analysis performed in the detection process 60 a).

The pulse detection process 60 b begins at block 100 by obtaining PCGdata from the patient in a manner as discussed above with respect toblock 70 (FIG. 4). In block 102, the PCG data is preferably analyzed toidentify a set of PCG data that likely contains an S1 or S2 heart sound.In that regard, an S1 or S2 heart sound candidate may be identified byusing the temporal energy comparison discussed in block 76 of the pulsedetection process 60 a. When the estimated instantaneous energy exceedsthe estimated background energy by a predetermined threshold, the energycomparison suggests that a potential S1 or S2 candidate has beendetected. Alternatively, a set of PCG data containing a heart sound maybe identified by evaluating the patient's ECG data for the occurrence ofan R-wave. The timing of an S1 or S2 heart sound in relation to anR-wave is generally known in the art and may be used to predict thetiming of a heart sound candidate in the PCG data. Other embodiments ofthe invention may compute an energy spectrum without first identifyingcandidate PCG data, e.g., by continuously computing an energy spectrumusing the most current PCG data as the candidate data.

Next, in block 104, the pulse detection process 60 b computes an energyspectrum of the heart sound candidate, preferably using a maximumentropy method, though other spectral calculations may be used.Computing an energy spectrum using a maximum entropy method (“MEMspectrum”) is well-known in the art. See, e.g., Modern SpectralEstimation: Theory and Application, by Stephen M. Kay, published byPrentice Hall of Englewood Cliffs, N.J., beginning at p. 182, andincorporated herein by reference. An MEM spectrum typically appears muchsmoother than an energy spectrum produced by Fourier transformtechniques.

FIG. 7 illustrates a representative MEM spectrum 120 for an interval ofPCG data containing an S1 heart sound. FIG. 7 also illustrates arepresentative MEM spectrum 130 for a set of PCG data containing an S2heart sound. The MEM spectrum 120 includes a number of peak energyvalues, including the first two peak values 122 and 124. Likewise, theMEM spectrum 130 includes a number of peak energy values, including thefirst two peak values 132 and 134. The MEM spectrum 120 or 130,whichever is used, may be normalized by removing a baseline (e.g., DC)energy value across the MEM spectrum.

As discussed below in more detail, the frequency of a peak energy valuein the energy spectrum is used as-a feature indicative of the presenceof a heart sound, and is evaluated against a predetermined thresholdfrequency value to decide whether a heart sound is detected. The pulsedetection process 60 b shown in FIG. 6 evaluates the second peak energyvalue occurring in the energy spectrum measured from DC, e.g., thesecond peak value 124 in the MEM spectrum 120, or the second peak value134 in the MEM spectrum 130.

In block 106 (FIG. 6), the pulse detection process 60 b evaluates theenergy values in the MEM spectrum to determine the frequency of thesecond peak in the MEM spectrum. For example, if the pulse detectionprocess 60 b evaluates MEM spectrum 120, the frequency of the secondpeak 124 is determined. A similar analysis applied to the MEM spectrum130 determines the frequency of the second peak 134.

In block 108, the frequency of the second peak 124 or 134 is comparedwith a predetermined threshold frequency to decide whether a heart soundis detected. For example, if the frequency of the second peak 124 or 134is less than or equal to a threshold frequency, e.g., 100 Hz, the pulsedetection process 60 b determines that a heart sound was detected.Alternative embodiments of the invention may use values other than 100Hz for the predetermined threshold frequency.

If a heart sound was detected, the pulse detection process 60 b proceedsfrom decision block 110 to block 112 and determines that a pulse ispresent in the patient, thus advising against application of adefibrillation pulse. If, in decision block 110, a heart sound was notdetected, the pulse detection process 60 b determines in block 114 thatthe patient is pulseless and that defibrillation may be appropriate forthe patient. In that case, further signal processing of ECG dataobtained from the patient is preferably performed to determine theapplicability of defibrillation therapy, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat.No. 4,610,254, referenced earlier.

One example illustrating the processing performed by the pulse detectionprocess 60 b is shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. FIG. 8A is a graph depicting aPCG waveform 140 of raw PCG data obtained from a patient in a manner asdiscussed above in regard to block 100 (FIG. 6). Although not shown inFIG. 8, the PCG waveform 140 may be filtered to reduce noise and othersignal contaminants (e.g., as described earlier in reference to FIG.5B).

For purposes of demonstrating the detection of heart sounds in thedetection process 60 b, an MEM spectrum of the data in the PCG waveform140 is computed for a number of instances in time, and the frequency ofthe second peak of each MEM spectrum is identified, as shown by thecircles in FIG. 8B, without regard to whether the selected instance oftime corresponds with a heart sound candidate. Of course, in actualoperation where results are needed for immediate and accurate evaluationof a patient, it is preferable that the PCG data first be screened forheart sound candidates.

In FIG. 8B, the circles enclosing an “x” identify the MEM spectra that,for this example, have a second peak located at or below a thresholdfrequency of 100 Hz. Note that, for the most part, the circles with an“x” in FIG. 8B correspond in time with the heart sounds evident in thePCG waveform 140 shown in FIG. 8A. For each circled “x,” the pulsedetection process 60 b decides that a heart sound, and thus a pulse, ispresent in the patient.

FIG. 9 illustrates another pulse detection process 60 c that also usesan MEM spectrum as calculated in block 104 of the detection process 60b. Instead of analyzing the frequency location of the second peak in theMEM spectrum, as performed in the process 60 b, the process 60 canalyzes the energy value of the second peak in the MEM spectrum.

The detection process 60 c begins at block 150 by obtaining PCG datafrom the patient in a manner as discussed earlier with respect to block70 (FIG. 4). The PCG data is analyzed in block 152 to identify PCG datacorresponding to the time when a heart sound S1 or S2 likely occurred.The analysis performed in block 152 may include an energy comparisonprocess or ECG analysis as described earlier with respect to block 102of pulse detection process 60 b (FIG. 6). An MEM spectrum of the heartsound candidate is then computed in block 154 in a manner as discussedearlier with respect to block 104 (FIG. 6). Also, as noted before, theenergy spectrum calculation process may be run continuously.

In block 156, the pulse detection process 60 c evaluates the energyvalues in the MEM spectrum to locate the second peak value in thespectrum. The energy value of the second peak, determined in a block158, is used as a feature indicative of the presence of a heart sound,and is compared in block 160 with a predetermined threshold energy todecide whether a heart sound was detected. If the energy value of thesecond peak exceeds the threshold energy, the pulse detection process 60c determines in decision block 162 that a heart sound was detected.

If, in decision block 162, a heart sound was detected, the pulsedetection process 60 c determines in block 164 that a cardiac pulse ispresent in the patient. In that circumstance, the detection process 60 cmay advise against providing defibrillation therapy to the patient. Thedetection process may also advise to check patient breathing. On theother hand, if a heart sound was not detected in decision block 162, thepulse detection process 60 c determines in block 166 that the patient ispulseless and advises that defibrillation therapy may be appropriate forthe patient. In other embodiments, the detection process may advise theapplication of chest compressions or CPR in addition to or in place ofadvising defibrillation therapy for pulseless patients. An analysis ofECG data, as noted earlier, may be used to determine the applicabilityof defibrillation therapy.

FIGS. 8A and 8C illustrate one example of the processing performed bythe pulse detection process 60 c. As discussed earlier, FIG. 8Aillustrates a PCG waveform 140 of raw PCG data obtained from a patientfrom which an MEM spectrum is computed for a number of instances intime. For each instance in time, the energy value of the second peak inthe MEM spectrum is identified, as depicted by the circles in FIG. 8C.

In FIG. 8C, the circles enclosing an “x” are the MEM spectra with asecond peak having an energy value above a selected threshold energy,e.g., 0 dB. While a threshold value of 0 dB is used in this specificexample, other embodiments of the invention may use different thresholdvalues to attain a desired sensitivity and specificity. The circles withan “x” in FIG. 8C generally correspond in time with the heart soundsevident in the PCG waveform 140 shown in FIG. 8A. Thus, for each circled“x,” the pulse detection process 60 c decides that a heart sound, andhence a cardiac pulse, is present in the patient.

On occasion, it is possible that noise in the PCG data may cause a falsedetection of a heart sound when using one of the detection processes 60a, 60 b, or 60 c described above. See, e.g., the two circled x's inFIGS. 8B and 8C immediately following the time reference of 0.6 seconds,which do not appear to correspond with heart sounds evident in FIG. 8A.If the signal-to-noise ratio of the PCG data obtained from the patientis not high enough to avoid such false detection of a heart sound, thedetection processes 60 a, 60 b, and 60 c of the pulse detection processmay be combined in one or more ways to produce a pulse detection processwith improved specificity. For example, FIG. 10 illustrates a detectionprocess 60 d that combines features of the detection processes 60 a, 60b, and 60 c.

In FIG. 10, the pulse detection process 60 d begins at block 170 byobtaining PCG data from a patient, e.g., in a manner as describedearlier with respect to block 70 of pulse detection process 60 a (FIG.4). After the PCG data is obtained, estimates of the instantaneousenergy and the background energy in the PCG data are computed in blocks172 and 174, e.g., in a manner as described earlier with respect toblocks 72 and 74. The estimated instantaneous and background energyvalues are then compared in a block 176, e.g., as described earlier withrespect to block 76, to produce a first detection statistic, or feature,indicative of the presence of a heart sound. The first detectionstatistic produced in block 176 is provided to a multidimensionalclassifier in block 186 that evaluates detection statistics to determinewhether a heart sound was present. Of course, those having ordinaryskill in the art will recognize that the instantaneous and backgroundenergies computed in blocks 172 and 174 may also be directly provided asseparate detection statistics to a multidimensional classifier in block186 for joint classification with any other detection statisticsprovided to the classifier (i.e., eliminating the comparison performedin block 176).

The PCG data obtained in block 170 is also used in identifying a heartsound candidate and computing an MEM spectrum in block 178, in a manneras described earlier with respect to blocks 102 and 104 of pulsedetection process 60 b (FIG. 6). Once the MEM spectrum is computed, thepulse detection process 60 d determines in block 180 the location of thesecond peak in the MEM spectrum.

The frequency of the second peak is determined in a block 182 andprovided as a second detection statistic, or feature, to the classifierin block 186. Alternatively, the second detection statistic may beproduced by comparing the frequency of the second peak with a thresholdfrequency, e.g., in a manner as described earlier with respect to block108 (FIG. 6), to produce the second detection statistic.

In block 184, the pulse detection process 60 d also determines theenergy value at the second peak and provides the energy value as a thirddetection statistic, or feature, to the classifier in block 186. Thesecond peak energy may alternatively be compared with a thresholdenergy, e.g., in a manner as described earlier with respect to block 160(FIG. 9), to produce the third detection statistic.

The classifier in block 186 jointly classifies the first, second, andthird detection statistics using a multidimensional classifier todetermine whether a heart sound, and hence a pulse, is present in thepatient. Techniques for constructing multidimensional classifiers arewell-known in the art. For an expanded description of classifierssuitable for use in the present invention, see, e.g., R. Duda and P.Hart, Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis, published by John Wiley& Sons, New York, and incorporated herein by reference.

The classifier in block 186 may also use a voting scheme to determinewhether a pulse is present in the patient. For example, if any of thefirst, second, or third detection statistics indicates the detection ofa heart sound (i.e., the instantaneous energy exceeded the backgroundenergy by a threshold value, the frequency of the second peak was equalto or less than a threshold frequency, or the energy of the second peakexceeded a threshold energy), the classifier may determine that a pulseis present in the patient. Alternatively, the classifier in block 186may determine that a pulse is present by finding that a combination ofthe first, second, and third detection statistics indicates the presenceof a heart sound (e.g., a positive indication from the first detectionstatistic combined with a positive indication from the second or thirddetection statistics, etc.). The classifier in block 186 may also weightthe first, second, or third detection statistics to emphasize onedetection statistic over another in deciding whether a heart sound wasdetected.

If, in decision block 188, a heart sound was detected, the pulsedetection process 60 d determines in block 190 that a pulse is presentin the patient and may advise the operator of the defibrillator to notdefibrillate the patient. The detection process may also advise to notperform CPR, in connection with or in place of any defibrillationadvice. Otherwise, if a heart sound was not detected in decision block188, the pulse detection process 60 d determines in block 192 that thepatient is pulseless and that CPR/chest compressions and/ordefibrillation therapy may be appropriate. An analysis of ECG data, asdescribed earlier in reference to U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,254, may be usedto determine if defibrillation therapy is appropriate.

An analysis of ECG data may also be combined with an analysis of PCGdata to determine the presence of a cardiac pulse in the patient. In oneaspect, detecting a QRS complex, or other ventricular complex, in theECG data in time relation to the occurrence of a heart sound occurs mayserve to confirm the detection of the heart sound. In another aspect,detecting a QRS complex or other ventricular complex in the ECG data maybe used to identify PCG data for use in the heart sound detectionprocess, since a heart sound is expected to occur in time proximity tothe occurrence of a ventricular complex if a cardiac pulse is present inthe patient. This aspect of the invention is helpful in identifying aheart sound candidate in the PCG data. It is also helpful in identifyingwhether the patient is in a state of pulseless electrical activity. If aventricular complex is found in the ECG data and a heart sound does notoccur within an expected time period thereafter, the patient may beconsidered in a state of pulseless electrical activity (PEA) which maybe reported to the operator of the device. The operator may also beprompted to deliver PEA-specific therapy, as discussed herein.

While the pulse detection processes described thus far use an analysisof PCG data to determine the presence of a cardiac pulse, the pulsedetection processes may analyze other physiological signals sensed inthe patient for features indicative of the presence of a cardiac pulse.For instance, variations in the patient's transthoracic impedance may beassociated with the discharge of blood from the heart. By monitoringcharacteristic variations in the patient's transthoracic impedance, thepulse detection process may monitor the patient's cardiac output, andhence determine the presence of a cardiac pulse.

Another physiological signal for use with the present invention may beobtained from a piezoelectric sensor, e.g., piezo film, placed on thesurface of the patent's body. Vibrations in the chest wall caused by thepatient's heart cause the piezo film to produce corresponding electricsignals. The pulse detection processes of the present invention mayanalyze the electric signals to determine whether a cardiac pulse ispresent. Additional detail regarding piezoelectric sensors and pulsedetection processes that use piezoelectric signal data is provided inthe copending U.S. Patent Application titled APPARATUS, SOFTWARE, ANDMETHODS FOR CARDIAC PULSE DETECTION USING A PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR, filedconcurrently herewith as application Ser. No. 10/229,321, and expresslyincorporated by reference herein.

Another physiological signal that could be used in the present inventionis obtained from one or more accelerometers placed on the patient.Vibrations in the patient from the patient's heart cause theaccelerometer to output one or more electric signals, depending on thesensed axes of the accelerometers. These signals may be analyzed for oneor more features indicative of a cardiac pulse. Additional detailregarding accelerometers and pulse detection processes usingaccelerometer signal data is provided in the copending U.S. PatentApplication titled APPARATUS, SOFTWARE, AND METHODS FOR CARDIAC PULSEDETECTION USING ACCELEROMETER DATA, filed concurrently herewith asapplication Ser. No. 10/229,339, and expressly incorporated by referenceherein.

Yet another physiological signal that could be used in the invention isderived from light-based techniques similar to photodetection (e.g., apulse oximetry signal). Pulse oximetry uses light transmitted throughthe patient's skin to evaluate the oxygenation of the patient's blood.The presence of a cardiac pulse is reflected in the pulse oximetrysignal. Apparatus and techniques for obtaining a pulse oximetry signalare well known in the art. One suitable system includes a sensor with ared LED, a near-infrared LED, and a photodetector diode. The sensor isconfigured to place the LEDs and photodetector diode directly on theskin of the patient, typically on a digit (finger or toe) or earlobe.Other places on the patient may also be suitable, including the foreheador the chest. The LEDs emit light at different wavelengths, which lightis diffused through the vascular bed of the patient's skin and receivedby the photodetector diode. The resulting pulse oximetry signal may thenbe analyzed according to the present invention for one or more featuresindicative of a cardiac pulse. Other simpler versions of a light-basedpulse detection system may be used, including a version with a singlelight source of one or more wavelengths. The absorption or reflectanceof the light is modulated by the pulsatile arterial blood volume anddetected using a photodetector device. One example is the PeripheralPulse Sensor device marketed by Physio-Control in the 1970's.Light-based techniques for pulse detection are described in greaterdetail below.

A CO₂ waveform signal obtained from a standard capnography system isanother physiological signal that could be used in the presentinvention. The CO₂ waveform is known to be affected by “cardiogenicoscillations” which are oscillations in the capnogram associated withthe beating of the heart against the lungs. The capnogram may thereforebe analyzed in the present invention to determine the presence of acardiac pulse in the patient, particularly when the analysis identifiesthe presence of cardiac oscillations. See e.g., J. S. Gravenstein etal., Gas Monitoring in Clinical Practice, 2nd edition,Butterworth-Heinemann pp. 23-42 (1995), incorporated herein byreference.

Still another physiological signal that could be used in the presentinvention is a Doppler probe signal, preferably obtained from a standardcontinuous waveform (CW) Doppler system. A Doppler probe is attached tothe patient and detects mechanical cardiac activity by sensing frequencyshifts known as Doppler shifts. In accordance with the presentinvention, a CW Doppler probe detects Doppler shifts associated withcardiac movement and the morphology of the Doppler shifts is analyzed todetermine if a pulse is present in the patient. See e.g., L. A. Geddeset al., Principles of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation, 3rd edition,John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp. 184-209 (1989), incorporated herein byreference.

Although analysis of impedance signal data is discussed below as a wayof describing further embodiments of the present invention, those ofordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the pulse detectionprocesses of the present invention may use any physiological signal orcombination of different physiological signals that reveal the presenceof a cardiac pulse. These signals include, without limitation,piezoelectric signals, accelerometer signals, pulse oximetry signals,CO₂ waveform signals, and Doppler probe signals as indicated above, aswell as PCG signals, ECG signals, and impedance signals.

FIG. 11 illustrates a pulse detection process 200 that uses an analysisof impedance signal data to determine the presence of a pulse in apatient. Preferably, the impedance signal data selected for analysis isobtained during time intervals associated with ventricular complexes inthe patient's ECG.

Beginning in block 202, the pulse detection process 200 captures bothECG and impedance signal data, synchronized in time, for a predeterminedtime interval (e.g., 10 seconds). Preferably, persons around the patientare advised to not touch the patient during this time interval (e.g.,the device could report “Analyzing now . . . . Stand clear”).Alternatively, the ECG and impedance capturing step may continue untilthe first or a specified number of ventricular complexes, such as QRScomplexes, in the ECG have been identified, or in the event of asystoleor a low heart rate, a predetermined maximum period of time (e.g., 10seconds) has passed.

In block 204, the pulse detection process 200 locates QRS complexes inthe captured ECG signal. Identification of QRS complexes can be doneusing methods published in the literature and well-known to thoseskilled in the art of ECG signal processing. For example see, WatanabeK., et al., “Computer Analysis of the Exercise ECG: A Review,” Prog.Cardiovasc Dis. 22: 423-446, 1980.

In block 206, for each time that a QRS complex was identified in the ECGsignal, a segment of filtered impedance signal data obtained from thecaptured impedance data is selected. In one embodiment of the invention,the time window of each segment of impedance data is approximately 600milliseconds in length, and commences in time prior to the end of theidentified QRS complex. If no QRS complexes were identified in thecaptured ECG signal in block 204 (as would happen for example, duringasystole), no segments of impedance data are selected in block 206.

In block 208, one or more measurements are made on a segment ofimpedance signal data selected in block 204 to identify or calculate afeature indicative of a cardiac pulse. Non-limiting examples of themeasurements may include one or more of the following temporalparameters:

(1) peak-to-peak amplitude of the impedance signal in the segment(measured in milliohms);

(2) peak-peak amplitude of the first derivative of the impedance signalin the segment (measured in milliohms per second);

(3) energy of the impedance signal in the segment (preferably calculatedby squaring and summing each of the impedance data values in thesegment); or

(4) a pattern matching statistic.

The previously described instantaneous/background energy methods, aswell as the spectral methods described herein, could be used in block208 as well to identify or calculate a feature indicative of a cardiacpulse.

As to pattern matching, the segment of impedance signal data is comparedwith one or more previously identified impedance signal patterns knownto predict the presence of a pulse. The comparison produces a patternmatch statistic. Generally, in this context, the greater the value ofthe pattern match statistic, the closer the patient's impedance signalmatches a pattern impedance signal that predicts the presence of apulse. Other candidate measurements will be apparent to those skilled inthe art, and may be used instead of, or in addition to, theaforementioned measurements. A measurement resulting from the analysisin block 208 constitutes a feature of the impedance signal data that maybe indicative of the presence of a pulse.

In decision block 210, the one or more features from block 208 areevaluated to determine the presence of a cardiac pulse in the patient.The embodiment shown in FIG. 11 compares the one or more features topredetermined thresholds to determine whether or not a pulse isdetected. For example, an impedance peak-to-peak amplitude measurementwould be consistent with the presence of a pulse if the measurementexceeded a certain threshold (e.g., 50 milliohms). Similarly, animpedance energy measurement would be consistent with a pulse if itsmagnitude exceeded a predetermined threshold. Likewise, a patternmatching statistic would be consistent with a pulse if it exceeded apredetermined threshold. If the feature exceeded the specifiedthreshold, the pulse detection process determines that a pulse wasdetected, as indicated at block 212. If the feature did not exceed thespecified threshold, a pulse was not detected, as indicated at block214. If no segments of impedance signal data were selected in block 206(i.e., no QRS complexes were located in block 202 in the captured ECG),the pulse detection process 200 would determine that a pulse was notdetected, as indicated at block 214.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 11 uses thresholding in block 210 todetermine whether a pulse was detected. However, those skilled in theart will recognize other forms of classification that may suitably beused in the invention. For example, multidimensional classifiers may beused in decision block 210 to determine whether a pulse was detected.Separate analyses of the amplitude and energy in the impedance datasegment may be performed, with the resultant outcome of each analysisconstituting a detection statistic that is provided to amultidimensional classifier. The detection statistics may be weightedand compared in the classifier to determine an overall conclusionwhether a pulse is present in the patient. In other embodiments,individual calculations of instantaneous and background amplitudesand/or energies may be provided as detection features for evaluation ina multidimensional classifier. Pattern match statistics may also beevaluated in the multidimensional classifier, as may other candidatemeasurements of the impedance signal data. Furthermore, spectraltechniques can be used, such as the peak frequency or energy techniquesdescribed previously. Techniques for constructing multidimensionalclassifiers are known in the art. See, e.g., R. Duda and P. Hart,Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis, referenced earlier andincorporated herein by reference.

After determining whether a pulse was detected (block 212) or notdetected (block 214), the pulse detection process 200 determines whetherall of the segments of impedance signal data selected in block 206 havebeen analyzed. If not, the analysis and decision process of blocks 208,210, 212, and 214 is preferably repeated for a new impedance datasegment. This continues until all of the impedance data segmentsselected in block 206 have been analyzed.

It is recognized that the resulting determination (pulse detected or nopulse detected) may not be the same for each impedance data segmentanalyzed. An additional decision step is used to determine the overalloutcome of the pulse detection process 200. As indicated at decisionblock 218, the pulse detection process 200 may evaluate thedeterminations for each impedance data segment and decide that a pulseis present in the patient if a pulse was detected in a simple majorityof the impedance segments analyzed. Of course, other voting schemes maybe used. If, in decision block 218, a majority is found, the pulsedetection process concludes that a cardiac pulse is present in thepatient, as indicated at block 220. Otherwise, the pulse detectionprocess 200 concludes that the patient is pulseless, as indicated atblock 222.

Requiring a pulse to be found in more than a simple majority of theimpedance data segments would improve the specificity of the detection,but decrease the sensitivity for detecting a pulse. Conversely,requiring a pulse to be found for just one impedance segment or for lessthan a majority of the impedance segments would improve sensitivity fordetecting a pulse but decrease specificity. If the pulse detectionprocess 200 concludes that a pulse is present in the patient, theprocess 200 may optionally proceed to check the pulse rate of thepatient, as illustrated in FIG. 12.

Turning to FIG. 12, in block 224, the number of QRS complexes (locatedin block 204 in FIG. 11) are counted. Decision block 226 subsequentlycompares the number of QRS complexes to a threshold. In one exemplaryembodiment, the threshold is 5, corresponding to a heart rate ofapproximately 30 bpm. If the number of QRS complexes is at least equalto the threshold, the pulse detection process 200 proceeds to block 228,concluding that the patient has a pulse and an adequate pulse rate. Ifthe number of QRS complexes is less than the threshold, the pulsedetection process 200 proceeds to block 230, concluding that the patienthas a pulse, but also severe bradycardia. At very low heart rates,however, the blood flow may be insufficient to life. For that reason,below a certain heart rate (e.g., 30 bpm) the patient may instead beconsidered pulseless.

While the pulse detection process shown in FIG. 11 includes capturingboth ECG and impedance signal data, and selecting the segments ofimpedance signal data based on ventricular complexes located in the ECG,other pulse detection processes may not capture or use the ECG signal.In FIG. 13, an alternative pulse detection process 232 begins bycapturing only impedance signal data from the patient, as indicated atblock 234. Depending on the length of the time interval in whichimpedance data is captured, it may be advantageous to select a segmentof the impedance signal data for further analysis, as indicated at block236. In that regard, one suitable selection process includes scanningthe impedance signal data for the maximum peak and selecting a segmentof data that surrounds the detected maximum peak.

For exemplary purposes, the pulse detection process 232 is shownevaluating the selected segment of impedance signal data using a patternmatch analysis. However, those skilled in the art will recognize thatother techniques (e.g., analysis of the amplitude or energy—temporal orspectral—in the impedance signal data, as discussed above), may be used.In block 238, the selected impedance data segment is compared withpreviously identified impedance signal patterns known to predict thepresence of a pulse. The resulting pattern match statistic is evaluatedagainst a threshold in decision block 240 to determine whether a pulsewas detected in the patient. If the pattern match statistic exceeded thethreshold, the pulse detection process 232 concludes in block 241 that apulse was detected in the patient. Otherwise, the pulse detectionprocess 232 concludes that the patient is pulseless, as indicated inblock 242. At this point, the pulse detection process is finished.Alternatively, if a pulse was detected in the patient, the pulsedetection process 232 may proceed to evaluate the patient's pulse ratein a manner described in reference to FIG. 12.

The transthoracic impedance signal can contain fluctuations due tocardiac pulses, respiration, or patient motion. To assess whether apatient has a pulse, it is desirable to suppress fluctuations in thepatient's impedance that are due to causes other than cardiac pulses.Fluctuations due to noncardiac causes may contain components atfrequencies similar to those of impedance fluctuations due to cardiacpulses. Consequently, bandpass filtering may not always adequatelysuppress fluctuations due to noncardiac causes.

Signal averaging of the impedance signal can be used to suppressfluctuations that are due to noncardiac causes. Signal averaging makesadvantageous use of the fact that impedance fluctuations due to cardiacpulses are generally synchronized to ventricular complexes in the ECGsignal, whereas other impedance fluctuations are asynchronous toventricular complexes. Pulse detection may be more accuratelyaccomplished using an averaged impedance signal.

A preferred method for signal averaging of the impedance signal firststores the continuous ECG and transthoracic impedance signals,synchronized in time, for a predetermined time interval (e.g., tenseconds). The locations of the QRS complexes (if any) in the stored ECGsignal are determined. Using true mathematical correlation (or analternative correlation technique such as area of difference), the QRScomplexes are classified into types, where all QRS complexes of the sametype have high correlation with the first occurring QRS complex of thattype. The dominant QRS type is selected as the type containing the mostmembers, with a preference for the narrowest QRS type when a two or moretypes tie for most members. Using the first QRS of the dominant type asa reference complex, the second QRS complex of the same type is shiftedin time until it is best aligned with the reference complex (i.e., itachieves a maximum correlation value). The corresponding impedancesignal is also shifted in time to stay synchronized with thetime-shifted QRS complex. When the second QRS complex is optimallyaligned with the reference complex, the two QRS complexes are averagedtogether. Their corresponding impedance signals, over a time period fromabout the start of the QRS complex to about 600 milliseconds after theend of the QRS complex, are also averaged together. The averaged QRScomplex is then used as a new reference complex and the process ofaveraging both the QRS complexes and the corresponding impedance data isrepeated with the remaining QRS complexes of the dominant type.

Preferably, during the subsequent averaging of the QRS complexes andimpedance segments, the new QRS complex and impedance segment carry aweight of one and the previous averaged QRS complex and impedancesegment carry a weight equal to the number of QRS complexes that havebeen included in the averaged QRS complex. When all of the QRS complexesof the dominant type have been processed as described above, theaveraged impedance segment is evaluated using one or more of thetechniques previously described (e.g., amplitude, energy, patternmatching) to determine whether the patient has a pulse.

Averaging of the signal data (be it PCG data, impedance data, etc., orcombinations thereof) may also be accomplished without evaluating ECGdata. For example, segments of impedance data may be analyzed andclassified into types where segments of the same type have a highcorrelation. Impedance data of a dominant type, for example, may then beaveraged and evaluated as previously described (using amplitude, energy,pattern matching, etc.) to determine whether the patient has a pulse.

During severe bradycardia, there will be few QRS complexes in a10-second period and signal averaging of the transthoracic impedancesignal will not be as effective as when the heart rate is higher.However, at very low heart rates, there is unlikely to be enough bloodflow to support life. For that reason, below a certain heart rate (e.g.,30 bpm), the patient may be considered pulseless.

While the pulse detection processes described thus far separately use aPCG signal or impedance signal to determine the presence of a pulse, itis further within the scope of the present invention to combine multiplephysiological signals into a pulse detection process. For example, thepulse detection process 244 depicted in FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplaryprocess in which PCG data and impedance signal data are used incombination to determine the presence of a pulse. In block 246, thepulse detection process 244 captures impedance signal data from thepatient, and in this example, captures ECG data as well. This capturingprocess may be performed in a manner similar to that described withrespect to block 202 in FIG. 11. In block 248, the pulse detectionprocess 244 calculates one or more detection features or statistics. Forexample, the detection process 244 may undertake actions similar to thatdescribed with respect to blocks 204, 206, 208, and 210 to produce animpedance-based detection statistic reflecting a preliminarydetermination whether a pulse has been detected.

At the same time as, or before or after, the impedance signal analysisin blocks 246 and 248, the pulse detection process 244 also undertakes aPCG signal analysis. In that respect, in block 250, the detectionprocess 244 obtains phonocardiogram (PCG) data from the patient asdescribed earlier in block 70 of FIG. 4. The PCG data is used tocalculate one or more detection features or statistics in block 252. Forexample, the detection process 244 may undertake actions as describedabove with regard to any or all of the pulse detection processes 60 a,60 b, and/or 60 c. As noted earlier, FIG. 10 illustrates a PCG-baseddetection process 60 d that combines the detection processes 60 a, 60 b,and 60 c. As shown in FIG. 10, each of the pulse detection processesproduces a first, second, and third detection statistic that are fed toa multidimensional classifier. In regard to FIG. 14, the detectionstatistics from the impedance-based and PCG-based detection processesare provided to a classifier for evaluation, as shown in block 254. Theclassifier in block 254 may be a multidimensional classifier asdescribed above with respect to block 186 (FIG. 10). As noted earlier,the reference Pattern Classification and Scene Analysis by R. Duda andP. Hart, describes techniques for constructing suitable multidimensionalclassifiers. Additionally, techniques for multidimensional classifiersare discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,171,256, assigned to the assignee ofthe present invention and incorporated by reference herein.

The outcome of the classification performed in block 254 is provided toa decision block 256. If the detection statistics are classified asindicating the presence of a pulse, the pulse detection process 244determines in block 257 that a cardiac pulse is present and preferablyadvises against providing defibrillation therapy to the patient. On theother hand, if the detection statistics are classified as not indicatingthe presence of a pulse, the pulse detection process 244 determines inblock 258 that a cardiac pulse was not detected and may advise thedelivery of defibrillation therapy.

There is no restriction as to what constitutes a detectionfeature/statistic for the purposes of the pulse detection process 244. Adetection feature/statistic may suitably be a preliminary determinationof whether a pulse is present (i.e., a binary “yes” or “no” outcome). Adetection feature/statistic may also be data produced from the analyzedphysiological signal. For example, a detection feature/statistic may bean amplitude, energy, or pattern match statistic as discussed earlier.The detection feature/statistic may also be an energy or frequency valuein the temporal or spectral domain. A combination of two or moreanalyzed physiological signals may advantageously provide a more robustpulse detection process with improved detection characteristics.

A pulse detection process as described herein may be used as part of anoverall shock advisory process in a defibrillator. The shock advisoryprocess determines whether to recommend defibrillation or other forms oftherapy for a patient. FIG. 15 illustrates a pulsedetection/defibrillation process 260, preferably for use in an automatedexternal defibrillator (AED) capable of providing a defibrillation pulseif a patient is determined to be pulseless and in ventricularfibrillation or ventricular tachycardia. The AED may also be configuredto prompt the application of chest compressions or CPR as appropriate.

In the pulse detection/defibrillation process 260, an AED initializesits circuits when it is first turned on, as indicated at block 262. Thedefibrillation electrodes of the AED are placed on the patient. When theAED is ready for operation, the process 260 performs an analysis of thepatient, as indicated at block 264, in which the AED obtains selectedparameters such as impedance signal data, ECG data, and/or PCG data,from the patient. During the analysis performed in block 264, the AEDpreferably reports “Analyzing now . . . . Stand clear” to the operatorof the AED.

Using the information obtained in the patient analysis, the process 260determines in decision block 266 whether the patient is experiencingventricular fibrillation (VF). If VF is present in the patient, theprocess 260 proceeds to block 276 where the AED prepares to deliver adefibrillation pulse to the patient. In that regard, an energy storagedevice within the AED, such as a capacitor, is charged. At the sametime, the AED reports “Shock advised” to the operator of the AED.

Once the energy storage device is charged, the process 260 proceeds toblock 278 where the AED is ready to deliver the defibrillation pulse.The operator of the AED is advised “Stand clear . . . . Push to shock.”When the operator of the AED initiates delivery of the defibrillationpulse, the process 260 delivers the defibrillation shock to the patient,as indicated in block 280.

The AED preferably records in memory that it delivered a defibrillationpulse to the patient. If the present pulse delivery is the first orsecond defibrillation shock delivered to the patient, the process 260may return to block 264 where the patient undergoes another analysis. Onthe other hand, if the pulse delivery was the third defibrillation pulseto be delivered to the patient, the process 260 may proceed to block 274where the AED advises the operator to commence providing CPR therapy tothe patient, e.g., by using the message “Start CPR.” The “No shockadvised” prompt shown in block 274 is suppressed in this instance. TheAED may continue to prompt for CPR for a predetermined time period,after which the patient may again be analyzed, as indicated in block264.

Returning to decision block 266, if VF is not detected in the patient,the process 260 proceeds to decision block 268 and determines whether acardiac pulse is present in the patient. The pulse detection performedin block 268 may be any one or a combination of the pulse detectionprocesses described above.

Breathing may be checked manually by the operator or automatically bythe device, as discussed below in regard to block 374 of FIG. 17. If, atdecision block 268, a pulse is detected in the patient and the patientis not breathing, the process 260 proceeds to block 270 and reports“Pulse detected . . . . Start rescue breathing” to the operator. Theprocess 260 may also report “Return of spontaneous circulation” if apulse is detected in the patient any time after the delivery of adefibrillation pulse in block 280. In any event, after a predeterminedtime period for rescue breathing has completed, the process 260preferably returns to block 264 to repeat an analysis of the patient.

If a cardiac pulse is not detected at decision block 268, the process260 determines whether the patient is experiencing ventriculartachycardia (VT) with a heart rate of greater than a certain threshold,e.g., 100 beats per minute (bpm), as indicated at decision block 272.Other thresholds such as 120, 150, or 180 bpm, for example, may be used.If the determination at decision block 272 is negative, the process 260proceeds to block 274 and advises the operator to provide CPR therapy.Again, at this point, the AED reports “No shock advised . . . . StartCPR” to the operator. The prompt to provide CPR is preferably providedfor a defined period of time. When the period of time for CPR isfinished, the process 260 preferably returns to block 264 and performsanother analysis of the patient. If the determination at decision block272 is positive (i.e., the patient is experiencing VT with a heart rategreater than the threshold), the process 260 performs the shock sequenceshown at blocks 276, 278, 280 to deliver a defibrillation pulse.

Those having ordinary skill in defibrillation and cardiac therapy willrecognize variations and additions to the process 260 within the scopeof the invention. FIG. 16, for example, illustrates an alternative pulsedetection/defibrillation process 300 for use in an AED. As with theprocess 260 in FIG. 15, the AED begins by initializing its circuits atblock 302. At block 304, the AED performs an analysis of the patient ina manner similar to that described with respect to block 264 in FIG. 15.After completing the analysis of the patient, the process 300 proceedsto decision block 306 to determine whether a pulse is present in thepatient. The pulse detection performed in block 306 may be, for example,any one of the pulse detection processes discussed above or acombination or variation thereof.

If a pulse is detected in the patient, the process 300 may enter amonitoring mode at block 308 in which the patient's pulse is monitored.The pulse monitoring performed at block 308 may use any one or acombination of the pulse detection processes described above.Preferably, the process 300 is configured to proceed from block 308 toblock 304 after expiration of the predetermined monitoring time period.If the pulse monitoring at block 308 determines at any time that a pulseis no longer detected, the process 300 returns to block 304 to performanother analysis of the patient. The process 300 also preferably reportsthe change in patient condition to the operator.

If, at decision block 306, a pulse is not detected in the patient, theprocess 300 proceeds to decision block 310 where it determines whetherthe patient has a shockable cardiac rhythm (e.g., VF or VT). Asreferenced earlier, U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,254, incorporated herein byreference, describes a suitable method for differentiating shockablefrom non-shockable cardiac rhythms.

If a shockable cardiac rhythm, such as VF or VT, is detected, theprocess 300 proceeds to a shock delivery sequence at blocks 312, 314,and 316, which may operate in a manner similar to that described withrespect to blocks 276, 278, and 280 in FIG. 15. If the pulse deliverywas the third defibrillation shock delivered to the patient, the process300 may proceed to block 318 and prompt the delivery of CPR, asdiscussed with block 274 in FIG. 15.

If VF or VT is not detected at decision block 310, the process 300checks for asystole, as indicated at block 320. One suitable process fordetecting asystole is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,304,773, assigned tothe assignee of the present invention and incorporated herein byreference. If asystole is detected at block 320, the process 300proceeds to prompt the delivery of CPR, as indicated at block 318. Ifasystole is not detected, the process 300 determines that the patient isexperiencing pulseless electrical activity (PEA), as indicated at block322. PEA is generally defined by the presence of QRS complexes in apatient and the lack of a detectable pulse, combined with no detectionof VT or VF. Detection of PEA in block 322 is achieved by ruling out thepresence of a pulse (block 306), detecting no VF or VT (block 310), anddetecting no asystole (block 320). Alternatively, if the ECG signal ismonitored for QRS complexes (e.g., as shown at block 202 in FIG. 11),the process 300 may conclude the patient is in a state of PEA if itrepeatedly observes QRS complexes without detection of a cardiac pulseassociated therewith. If a PEA condition is detected, the process 300proceeds to block 324 and prompts the operator to deliver PEA-specifictherapy to the patient. One suitable method of treating PEA is describedin U.S. Pat. No. 6,298,267, incorporated by reference herein. Theprocess 300 may prompt other therapies as well, provided they aredesigned for a PEA condition. After a PEA-specific therapy has beendelivered to the patient, possibly for a predetermined period of time,the process 300 returns to block 304 to repeat the analysis of thepatient.

FIG. 17 illustrates yet another pulse detection/defibrillation process350 that may be used in an AED. At block 352, after the AED has beenturned on, the AED initializes its circuits. The defibrillationelectrodes are also placed on the patient. The AED is then ready toanalyze the patient, as indicated at block 354. This analysis may beperformed in a manner similar to that described with respect to block264 in FIG. 15.

If at any point the AED determines that the defibrillation electrodesare not connected to the AED, the process 350 jumps to block 356 wherethe AED instructs the operator to “Connect electrodes.” When the AEDsenses that the electrodes are connected, the process 350 returns to theanalysis in block 354. Likewise, if the AED finds itself in any otherstate where the electrodes are not connected, as represented by block358, the process 350 jumps to block 356 where it instructs the operatorto connect the electrodes.

Furthermore, during the analysis performed in block 354, if the AEDdetects motion on the part of the patient, the process 350 proceeds toblock 360 where the AED reports to the operator of the AED “Motiondetected . . . Stop motion.” If the patient is moved during the analysisprocess 354, the data obtained during the analysis is more likely to beaffected by noise and other signal contaminants. Motion of the patientmay be detected in the impedance signal data collected by the presentinvention. A suitable method for detecting motion of the patient isdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,254, referenced earlier andincorporated by reference herein. The AED evaluates the impedancemeasured between the defibrillation electrodes placed on the patient. Asnoted earlier, noise and signal components resulting from patient motioncause fluctuations in the impedance signal, generally in a frequencyrange of 1-3 Hz. If the measured impedance fluctuates outside of apredetermined range, the AED determines that the patient is moving orbeing moved and directs the process 350 to proceed to block 360. Whenthe motion ceases, the process 350 returns to the analysis in block 354.

The process 350 next proceeds to decision block 362 where it determineswhether a pulse is detected in the patient. Again, the pulse detectionprocesses performed in decision block 362 may be, for example, one ofthe pulse detection processes described above or combination orvariation thereof.

If a pulse is not detected in the patient, the process 350 proceeds todecision block 364 where it determines whether the patient has ashockable cardiac rhythm (e.g., VF or VT) or a non-shockable cardiacrhythm (such as asystole and bradycardia). As referenced earlier, onesuitable method for differentiating shockable from non-shockable cardiacrhythms is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,610,254, incorporated herein byreference. If the patient's cardiac rhythm is determined to be shockable(e.g., VF or VT is found), the process 350 proceeds to blocks 366, 368,and 370 to deliver a shock to the patient. The shock delivery may beperformed as described earlier with respect to blocks 276, 278, 280 inFIG. 15.

If the pulse delivery was the third defibrillation pulse to be deliveredto the patient, the process 350 proceeds to block 372 where the AEDadvises the operator to commence providing CPR therapy to the patient.The CPR prompt may continue for a defined period of time, at which theprocess 350 returns to block 354 and performs another analysis of thepatient.

If, at decision block 364, the patient's cardiac rhythm is determinednot shockable, the process 350 preferably proceeds to block 372 andadvises the operator to provide CPR therapy, as discussed above.

Returning to decision block 362, if a pulse is detected in the patient,the process 350 proceeds to decision block 374 where it determineswhether the patient is breathing. In that regard, the AED may again usethe impedance signal for determining whether a patient is breathing. Asnoted earlier, fluctuations in impedance of the patient below 1 Hz arelargely indicative of a change in volume of the patient's lungs. Thebreathing detection at block 374 (and at blocks 376 and 378, discussedbelow) may monitor the impedance signal for characteristic changes thatindicate patient breathing, e.g., as described in Hoffmans et al.,“Respiratory Monitoring With a New Impedance Plethysmograph,” Anesthesia41: 1139-42, 1986, and incorporated by reference herein. Detection ofbreathing may employ a process similar to that described above fordetection of a pulse (i.e., evaluating impedance amplitude, energy, orpattern), though a different bandpass filter would be used to isolatethe frequency components that more closely demonstrate patientbreathing. If automatic means for detecting breathing in the patient arenot available, the AED may ask the operator of the AED to inputinformation (e.g., by pressing a button) to indicate whether the patientis breathing.

If, at decision block 374, the process 350 determines that the patientis not breathing, the process 350 proceeds to a block 376 where theoperator of the AED is advised to commence rescue breathing. In thatregard, the AED reports to the operator “Pulse detected . . . Startrescue breathing.” The AED also continues to monitor the patient'scardiac pulse and returns to block 354 if a cardiac pulse is no longerdetected. If, at any point during the provision of rescue breathing, theAED detects that the patient is breathing on his own, the process 350proceeds to block 378 where the AED monitors the patient for a continuedpresence of breathing and a cardiac pulse.

Returning to decision block 374, if the process 350 determines that thepatient is breathing, the process 350 proceeds to block 378 where theAED monitors the pulse and breathing of the patient. In that regard, theAED reports “Pulse and breathing detected . . . . Monitoring patient.”If, at any time during the monitoring of the patient the process 350determines that the patient is not breathing, the process 350 proceedsto block 376 where the operator of the AED is advised to commence rescuebreathing. If a cardiac pulse is no longer detected in the patient, theprocess 350 proceeds from either block 376 or 378 to block 354 tocommence a new analysis of the patient.

Lastly, as noted in FIG. 17, during the rescue breathing procedure inblock 376 or the monitoring procedure performed in block 378, the AEDmay assess whether CPR is being administered to the patient. If the AEDfinds that CPR is being performed, the AED may prompt the operator tocease providing CPR. If, during the CPR period of block 372, the AEDdetermines that CPR is not being administered to the patient, the AEDmay remind the operator to provide CPR therapy to the patient. Onemethod for determining whether CPR is being administered is to monitorpatient impedance to observe patterns of impedance fluctuation in thepatient that are indicative of CPR. During CPR, repetitive chestcompression typically causes repetitive fluctuations in the impedancesignal.

FIG. 18 illustrates yet another application in which pulse detectionaccording to the present invention may be used. The applicationdescribed in FIG. 18 pertains to auto-capture detection in cardiacpacing.

Specifically, the auto-capture detection process 380 begins at block 382in which pacing therapy for the patient is initiated. A counter N,described below, is set to equal 0. At block 384, a pacing pulse isdelivered to the patient. Thereafter, physiological signal data isobtained from the patient, as indicated at block 386. This data mayinclude, for example, PCG data, ECG data impedance signal data,piezoelectric signal data, accelerometer data, etc., or a combination ofthis data, that is capable of indicating the presence of a cardiacpulse. The patient's physiological signal data is used in block 388 todetect the presence of a cardiac pulse. The pulse detection process usedin block 388 may be, for example, any one or combination or variation ofthe pulse detection processes discussed above.

The sequence of delivering a pacing pulse and determining the presenceof a cardiac pulse in blocks 384, 386, 388 may be repeated a number oftimes. With respect to FIG. 18, for example, the sequence is repeatedfive times. At block 390, the counter N is evaluated, and if not yetequal to 5, the counter is incremented by 1 (block 392), following whichthe process 380 returns to deliver another pacing pulse to the patient(block 384).

If, at decision block 390, the counter N equals 5, the process 380determines at decision block 394 whether a cardiac pulse occurredconsistently after each pacing pulse. The process 380 requires that someportion or all of the pacing pulses result in a detectable cardiac pulsebefore pronouncing that capture has been achieved. If the presence of acardiac pulse is determined to consistently follow the pacing pulses,the process 380 determines that capture has been achieved, as inindicated at block 396. Otherwise, the current of the pacing pulses isincreased by a predetermined amount, e.g., 10 milliamperes, as indicatedat block 398. At block 399, the counter N is set back to equal 0 and theprocess 380 returns to the pacing capture detection sequence beginningat block 384. In this manner, the pacing current is increased untilcapture has been achieved.

In FIG. 18, the presence of a pulse is used to determine whether thepacing stimulus has been captured by the ventricles of the patient'sheart. Detection of QRS complexes in the patient's ECG may also be usedas patient physiological signal data to identify pacing capture. A QRScomplex will occur immediately following the pacing stimulus if capturehas been achieved. If QRS complexes are not observed, the current of thepacing pulses may be increased, as discussed above, until, capture hasbeen achieved.

FIG. 19 illustrates still another application in which pulse detectionaccording to the present invention may be used. The process 400described in FIG. 19 is particularly suited for use in a manualdefibrillator or patient monitor. Beginning at block 402, the process400 monitors the patient's ECG for QRS complexes. At block 404, theprocess 400 also obtains other physiological signal data, such as PCGdata, impedance signal data, piezoelectric signal data, accelerometerdata, etc., from the patient. The process 400 uses the ECG and otherphysiological signal data in decision block 406 to determine thepresence of a cardiac pulse. The pulse detection implemented in block406 may be one of the pulse detection processes discussed herein.

If a pulse is detected, the process 400 determines whether adefibrillation pulse has been provided to the patient and if so, reportsthe return of spontaneous circulation to the operator, as indicated atblock 418. The process 400 then returns to block 402 to repeat the pulsedetection analysis. If a pulse is not detected, the process 400evaluates the ECG signal to determine whether the patient isexperiencing ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia with aheart rate greater than 100 bpm. If so, then the process identifies thepatient's condition and produces a VT/VF alarm, as indicated at block410. If not, the process 400 then proceeds to block 412 to check for anasystole condition.

Detection of asystole may be accomplished as noted earlier and describedin greater detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,304,773, incorporated herein byreference. If asystole is detected, the process 400 identifies thepatient's condition and sounds an asystole alarm, as indicated at block414. Otherwise, the patient is experiencing PEA and the patient'scondition is so identified, with the sound of a PEA alarm, as indicatedat block 416. In this manner, the operator of the manual defibrillatoror monitor is kept advised of the patient's condition.

One having ordinary skill in the art will readily recognize that thepresent invention may be implemented by one or more devices that includelogic circuitry. The one or more devices perform functions and/ormethods as described above. The logic circuitry may include a processor,such as the processing circuit 38, that may be programmable for ageneral purpose, or dedicated, such as a microcontroller, amicroprocessor, a digital signal processor (DSP), etc. For example, adevice implementing the invention may be a digital computer-like device,such as a general purpose computer selectively activated or reconfiguredby a computer program stored in the computer. Alternatively, the devicemay be implemented as an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC),etc.

As described herein, a physiological signal that can be used for pulsedetection, in accordance with the invention, may be derived fromlight-based techniques similar to photo detection, e.g., using a pulseoximetry signal. Pulse oximetry uses light transmitted through thepatient's skin to evaluate the oxygenation level of the patient's blood.The presence of a cardiac pulse is reflected in the pulse oximetrysignal. Various apparatus and techniques for obtaining a pulse oximetrysignal are well known in the art. However, described herein are a newapparatus and techniques for the derivation and use of physiologicalparameters obtained from a pulse oximetry signal, as well as apparatusand techniques for cardiac pulse detection based on the physiologicalparameters. In particular, cardiac pulse detection can be performedoptically by processing a light detection signal over a period of timeto detect a trend in pulsatile changes in blood volume.

One suitable optical system for cardiac pulse detection includes asensor with a red LED, a near-infrared LED, and a photodetector diode.The sensor is configured to place the LEDs and photodetector diodedirectly on the skin of the patient, typically on a digit (finger ortoe) or earlobe. Other places on the patient may also be suitable,including the forehead or the chest. The LEDs emit light at differentwavelengths. The light emitted by the LEDs is diffused through thevascular bed of the patient's skin and received by the photodetectordiode. The resulting pulse oximetry signal may then be analyzedaccording to the present invention to ascertain one or morephysiological signals indicative of a cardiac pulse. In particular,detection of the transmitted light over a period of time may be used toascertain trending of pulsatile changes in blood volume.

Other simpler versions of a light-based pulse detection system may beused, including a version with a single light source producing one ormore wavelengths. The absorption or reflectance of the light ismodulated by the pulsatile arterial blood volume and detected using aphotodetector device. One example is the Peripheral Pulse Sensor devicemarketed by Physio-Control Manufacturing Co. in the 1970's.

Hence, in some embodiments, a system in accordance with the inventionmay provide an optical pulse detection system that includes, or isincorporated within, a defibrillator or other medical device. Thedefibrillator is capable of permitting selective defibrillation of apatient, if it is so indicated. In addition, the defibrillator or othermedical device may be configured to provide information to the userconcerning treatment of the patient based on the trend in pulsatilechanges blood volume, or provide the treatment itself. For example, thedefibrillator may permit selective defibrillation in response to lightdetection signals, and one or more associated physiological parametersindicated by the light detection signals, such as trending of pulsatilechanges in blood volume. The defibrillator can be manual, automatic,semi-automatic, or the like. The defibrillator or other medical devicemay further include one or more light sources. The light sourcestransmit light into the patient, and are preferably placed onto the bodyof the patient, e.g., on a finger, toe, earlobe nose, lip, forehead,neck, or on the chest, including adjacent to the perimeter of adefibrillation electrode.

A medical device in accordance with the invention further includes alight detector. The light detector receives light that has beentransmitted into the patient, and either pass-through transmittedthrough an appendage, e.g., transmission through a finger, toe, earlobenose, or lip, or back-scatter reflected to produce reflected light froma surface such as the forehead, neck, chest, or the like. In otherwords, the light detector captures either transmitted or reflectedlight.

The light detector may by placed on the patient's body facing the lightsource for a transmissive detection or adjacent to the light source fora reflective detection. Multiple light sources and multiple detectorscan be utilized to assist in distinguishing peripheral blood flow fromtrue cerebral blood flow.

The light detector generates a light detection signal in response to thereflected or transmitted light. The combined light source and lightdetector are intended for detecting the presence of a pulse of thepatient. They may be advantageously provided in a single device, whichis also known as a pulse detector. Furthermore, the pulse detector, oreither the light source and/or the light detector, can be providedeither integrally with the defibrillator and the defibrillationelectrodes, or together as a pulse detector separate from thedefibrillation electrode that may provide a signal to the defibrillatoror be used as part of a separate device.

The invention further contemplates a processor for processing the lightdetection signal to detect at least one physiological parameter. Thatphysiological parameter can be the trending of pulsatile changes inblood volume in the vicinity of the light detector. In each case, thelight detection signal level and waveform characteristics provides acorrelation with the level and waveform characteristics of thephysiological parameters. The processor may be adapted to repeatprocessing, and thereby further determine a trending statistic for anyof the foregoing physiological parameters. In each case, thephysiological parameter or trending statistic provides an indication ofthe presence of a cardiac pulse, and thus supports cardiac pulsedetection.

Optionally, a medical device in accordance with the invention furthermay include a temperature sensor that generates a temperature signal.Then, the light detection signal is advantageously analyzed based on thetemperature signal. A standard temperature sensor such as a thermistoror solid state device like a diode may be used to determine the ambientor skin temperature. The temperature of the tissue can also bedetermined by monitoring the characteristic change of the opticaldetector. The sensor has a characteristic signature versus temperaturethat could be utilized to monitor skin temperature.

Changes in the absorption coefficient and the scattering coefficient ofthe tissue/blood as a function of temperature can then be compensated inthe processing of the transmitted or reflected light signal to produce amore reliable representation of a desired physiological parameter. Thistemperature sensor can also be used to compensate for changes in sourceemission as a function of temperature. This information can be used toadjust thresholds levels for the change in amplitude of the lightdetection signal that would be detected as a pulse.

In one set of embodiments, a defibrillator in accordance with theinvention includes at least one defibrillation electrode to be appliedto the patient. In addition, an optical pulse detector for detecting apulse of the patient is attached to the defibrillation electrode.

Attachment of the optical pulse detector to the defibrillation electrodemay be permanent or temporary. For example, the optical pulse detectormay be attached to the defibrillation electrode by an adhesive tape,hook-and-loop fasteners, snap fit, friction fit, tear-away joint, or thelike, or the pulse detector may be integrally built into the componentsof the defibrillation electrode. Preferably, attachment is such that thepulse detector can be readily detached from the defibrillationelectrode, and attached to different positions on the patient, e.g.,chest, neck and forehead. As an alternative, non-optical pulsedetectors, such as electrical or acoustic pulse detectors, may beintegrated with a defibrillator electrode, or made detachable from adefibrillator electrode, as described above. In each case, an integratedor detachable pulse detector may provide efficiency and convenience tothe user in placing the detector on the patient. Thus, as describedherein, although the pulse detector preferably is optical, someembodiments may provide as detachable sensors other types of sensors,including mechanical sensors such as vibration/pressure wave sensorsmade with a piezoelectric material, or an acoustic microphone, may bemade detachable from a defibrillation electrode.

In additional embodiments, the pulse detector may be applied in a singlestep with the defibrillation electrodes in a first location, e.g., thechest or abdomen, subsequently detached from the electrodes, and thenreapplied to the patient in a second location on the patient's body,e.g., the neck or forehead. This enables the user to apply theelectrodes and the optical or non-optical pulse detector in a singlestep, allowing the system to quickly assess the condition of thepatient. If the quality of the pulse detection signal at the firstlocation is not as desired, then the pulse detector can be detached fromthe electrode and reapplied in a second location such as the neck orforehead.

In another embodiment, a medical device may include a pulse detectorwith a light source that operates at two or more wavelengths of light.More specifically, the light source includes one or more light sourcescapable of transmitting light into the patient at least two wavelengths.Exemplary wavelengths for transmission of light into the patient are549.5, 569, 760, 805, and 850 nm.

The light source may be implemented by a single source, operating atleast two wavelengths, or by two or more sources, each operating at adifferent wavelength. Suitable light sources include LEDs, laser sourcessuch as diode lasers or wavelength-tunable lasers, a polychromatic lightsource with a prism for separating wavelengths, or the like.

In addition, the medical device includes at least one light detector forreceiving light that has been transmitted into the patient. Either asingle photodetector can be used to detect both wavelengths, ordifferent detectors can be used for the different wavelengths. The oneor more light detectors generate light detection signals in response tolight received at the different wavelengths that have been transmittedinto the patient.

In these embodiments, a processor processes the light detection signalsto ascertain at least one physiological parameter of the patient.Acquisition of light detection signals at two different wavelengths aidsthe processor in distinguishing artifacts from signals actuallyindicative of physiological parameters. The processor preferably isadapted to repeat processing after a number of times, to furtherdetermine trending statistics for a given physiological parameter suchas pulsatile changes in blood volume.

As mentioned above, the processor may be adapted to further distinguish,from the light detection signals, an artifact from a signal of thepatient corresponding to the physiological parameter. The artifact maybe environmentally caused or patient dependent. The physiological signalmay be one that corresponds to changes in blood volume caused bypulsatile blood flow.

In other embodiments, a medical device includes means for transmittinglight into the patient, where the light has at least two or moredifferent intensity levels. For example, two distinct light sourcesoperating at different intensities may be provided. Light sources can beof the same wavelength or different, as described above. Also, the lightsources can be implemented by any of the devices described above. Inadditional embodiments, a light source includes a single light sourceadjustable to emit light at distinct intensity levels.

In each case, a light detector is further included for receiving lightthat has been transmitted into the patient. The light detector can be asingle photodetector, and sense the different intensities. Further, thelight source may be integrated with the light source or sources, as asingle pulse detection device. The light detector generates a lightdetection signal in response to the light that is received after it hasbeen transmitted into the patient. In this case, the processordetermines pulse parameters, and optionally also an artifact from thelight detection signals.

As a further embodiment, a circuit or a processor within the medicaldevice extracts a dc component of the light detection signal. In thosecases, the intensity level of the light source may be adjusted accordingto the extracted dc component, or a gain of the light detector may beadjusted according to the extracted dc component, or both. Additionally,the intensity of the light source may be varied as a function oftemperature.

FIG. 20 is a block diagram of a defibrillator 419A incorporating anoptical, i.e., light-based, cardiac pulse detector with amulti-wavelength light source. As shown in FIG. 20, defibrillator 420includes defibrillation electrodes 420A, 420B. In addition,defibrillator 419 includes a light detection module 422 with a firstlight source 421, a second light source 423 and a light detector 425. Aprocessor 424 executes instructions stored in memory 426 to control alight detection interface 428 and defibrillation interface 430, andprocess signals received via light detection interface 428.

Light detection interface 428 includes circuitry to drive light sources421, 423 to generate light at different wavelengths. In particular,light sources 421, 423 generate light at different wavelengths selectedto provide different tissue and blood absorption characteristics. Lightdetector 425 receives the light transmitted into the patient by lightsources 421, 423 and generates light detection signals. For example, thelight at different wavelengths may be transmitted and detected atdifferent times. Hence, light detection interface 428 may selectivelydrive light sources 421, 423.

Light detection interface 428 receives the light detection signals fromlight detector 425 and passes the signals to processor 424. Processor424 processes the light detection signals to ascertain a physiologicalparameter that correlates with characteristics of the light detectionsignals. Again, the physiological parameter may be a trending ofpulsatile changes in blood volume. The light detection signal may becorrelated with a pulsatile change in blood volume for pulse detection.In particular, the light detection signal can be processed to correlateone of the amplitude and shape of the detection signal with the strengthof the patient's pulse. The light detection signal can be monitored overa period of time and analyzed for any changes in amplitude, and shapeover time. This could be used to assess the condition of a patient whomay have a ‘weak’ pulse. This may be useful, for example, for a traumapatient. The pulse signal may be of sufficient amplitude to indicate apulse is detected, but over a period of time the patient's pulse maybecome weaker, which may signify that the patient's condition isdeteriorating. Processor 424 could provide a message to alert the careprovider to the change in the patient's condition. The analysis of thepulse signal for trends such as this may enable the care provider togive earlier treatment to improve the condition of the patient.

Using multiple wavelengths improves the ability of the sensor todistinguish differences in optical transmission due to environmentalartifact and differences due to the biological parameter of interest.Changes in optical transmission due to environmental changes will besimilar at multiple wavelengths. However, by properly selecting thewavelengths, one wavelength will have greater changes in opticaltransmission due to the biological parameter of interest than otherwavelengths. This information can be processed to improve detection ofchanges due to the physiological parameter of interest. For example,processor 424 processes the light detection signal to ascertain aphysiological parameter such as pulsatile changes in blood volume, orother physiological parameters useful in cardiac pulse detection. Insome embodiments, processor 424 may process the light detection signalover a period of time to detect a trend in pulsatile changes in the flowof blood.

Processor 424 evaluates the physiological parameter to determine whetherthe parameter indicates the presence or absence of a cardiac pulse inthe patient. Based on the indication of the presence or absence of acardiac pulse, processor 42 determines whether defibrillation isappropriate. In particular, processor 42 permits selectivedefibrillation of the patient if the presence of a cardiac pulse is notindicated. In this case, the defibrillation may be automated,semi-automated or manual. Hence, processor 42 may control defibrillationinterface 430 to deliver a defibrillation shock, or present to a user anindication that defibrillation shock should be delivered, i.e., asvisual and/or audible instructions via a user interface such as adisplay screen or speaker. Alternatively, or in addition, processor 42may provide instructions for delivery of CPR. Defibrillation interface430 may include appropriate charging, storage and switching hardware fordelivery of defibrillation shocks via defibrillation electrodes 420A,420B.

FIG. 21 is a block diagram of another defibrillator 419B incorporatingan optical pulse detector. Defibrillator 419B conforms substantially todefibrillator 419A of FIG. 20, but incorporates a light detector module432 having a single light source 427, rather than two light sources.Single light source 427 may transmit light at a single wavelength, ormay be configured to selectively transmit light at multiple wavelengths.In each case, light detector 425 receives the transmitted light andgenerates one or more light detection signals for evaluation byprocessor 424.

FIG. 22 is a block diagram of a defibrillator 419C incorporating anoptical pulse detector with a temperature sensor 434. Defibrillator 419Ccorresponds substantially to defibrillator 419B, but further includestemperature sensor 434. Temperature sensor 434 may be realized by anysuitable temperature sensing device, such as a thermistor, thermocouple,solid state temperature sensor, or the like, which may be placed on thepatient's body, e.g., adjacent light detector module 432. A temperatureinterface 432 may be provided to amplify and process a temperaturesignal generated by temperature sensor 434 for evaluation by processor424 in conjunction with the light detection signal obtained from lightdetection interface 428.

Processor 424 may correlate the light detection signal with atemperature range indicated by the temperature sensor 434 in order tocompensate the light detection signal for temperature-inducedvariations, and more accurately derive physiological parameters forcardiac pulse detection. In addition, processor 424 uses the temperaturesignal generated by photodetector sensor 428 to assess the change in theabsorption coefficient and/or the scattering coefficient of the tissueor blood into which the light is transmitted by light source 427 as afunction of temperature. Processor 424 may correlate the light detectionsignal with a temperature range indicated by the temperature sensor 434in order to compensate the light detection signal fortemperature-induced variations, and more accurately derive physiologicalparameters for cardiac pulse detection.

FIG. 23 is a diagram of a defibrillator electrode 420A incorporating anoptical pulse detector 422 attached to the defibrillation electrode.FIG. 24 illustrates detachment of optical pulse detector 422 fromdefibrillation electrode 420A. Optical pulse detector 422 may include asingle or multiple light sources and light detectors as shown in theexamples of FIGS. 20-24, and may operate substantially as describedabove. In addition, optical pulse detector 422 may be detachably coupledto defibrillation electrode 420, e.g., by adhesive tape, hook-and-loopfasteners, snap fits, friction fits, or tear-away joints. In thismanner, optical pulse detector 422 may be initially attached todefibrillation electrode 420A, but then detached by the user.

For example, the optical pulse detector 422 may be placed on the body ofthe patient at a first location with defibrillation electrode 420 toobtain a first pulse detection, and then detached and placed at a secondlocation to obtain a second pulse detection. The first and second pulsedetections may be evaluated together to obtain a more reliableindication of a cardiac pulse. Alternatively, the user may elect todetach optical pulse detector 422 and move it to a different position ifthe first position is not providing an acceptable detection signal. Ineach case, the first location may be on the chest or abdomen of thepatient while the second position may be on the neck or forehead of thepatient.

FIG. 25 is a graph illustrating a light detection signal with a dccomponent. As shown in FIG. 26, the light detection 438 may have agenerally pulsatile waveform, as well as a significant dc component 440that adds an offset to the waveform. As a further embodiment of theinvention, any of the defibrillators 419 of FIGS. 20-22 may furtherincorporate a circuit or a processor-implemented routine to extract dccomponent 440 of the light detection signal 438. In this case, theintensity level of a light source 421, 423, 427 may be adjustedaccording to the extracted dc component, or an amplifier gain withinlight detection module 422 or light detection interface 428 may beadjusted according to the extracted dc component. Additionally, in someembodiments, the intensity of the light source 421, 423, 427 may bevaried as a function of temperature. In each case, the result may be amore accurate derivation of a physiological parameters based on thelight detection signal, and hence a more reliable cardiac pulsedetection.

FIG. 26 is a flow diagram illustrating a technique for cardiac pulsedetection based on a light detection signal. The technique illustratedin FIG. 27 may be performed by one or more of the medical devicesdescribed in FIGS. 20-22. As shown in FIG. 26, the technique includestransmitting light into a patient (442), receiving the transmitted lightvia a light detector (444), and generating a light detection signal(446) based on the transmitted light. The technique further includesprocessing the light detection signal to ascertain a physiologicalparameter (448), such as a trend in pulsatile changes in blood volume,and generate a cardiac pulse detection indication based on thephysiological parameter (450). The user is provided with informationconcerning treatment of the patient, or treatment itself, based on thetrend in pulsatile changes of blood volume. For example, other actions,such as issuance of instructions for delivery of CPR, or indication ofother conditions, may be taken in response to the indication.

FIG. 27 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device, such as one of medical devices 419A-C, to indicateconditions of a patient or therapy to be delivered to the patient basedon the absence of pulsatile blood flow as detected via an optical pulsedetector 422, 432. Specifically, FIG. 27 illustrates a operation of amedical device 419 to monitor electrical activity of a heart of thepatient, and indicate the occurrence of non-shockable pulselesselectrical activity (PEA), or indicate delivery of a defibrillationshock where a ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation rhythm is notaccompanied by pulsatile blood flow, e.g., where the ventriculartachycardia or fibrillation is shockable. The medical device 419 mayinclude an ECG signal amplifier 52, ECG bandpass filter 54, and A/Dconverter 36 as described with reference to FIG. 3, and may detectelectrical activity of the heart of the patient via electrodes 420A and420B, or other electrodes dedicated ECG detection.

The medical device 419 transmits light into the patient (462), andreceives the transmitted light (464) to generate a light detectionsignal according to any of the above-described techniques (466). Themedical device 419 processes the light detection signal to determinewhether pulsatile blood flow is present according to any of theabove-described techniques (468). If the medical device 419 determinesthat pulsatile blood flow is not present, the medical device mayindicate the absence of pulsatile blood flow to a user.

The medical device 419 analyzes the electrical activity within the heartof the patient, e.g., the ECG of the patient. If the medical device 419does not detect electrical activity indicative of ventriculardepolarizations (470), e.g., the ECG does not contain appreciableR-waves and/or the patient is in asystole, the medical device 419 mayprompt the user to deliver a defibrillation shock or automaticallydeliver a defibrillation shock (478). If the medical device 119 detectselectrical activity that is indicative ventricular tachycardia (VT) orventricular fibrillation (VF) and that pulsatile blood flow is notpresent (472), e.g., detects a shockable VT or VF, the medical device119 may prompt the user to deliver a defibrillation shock orautomatically deliver a defibrillation shock (478). If the medicaldevice 419 detects electrical activity that is not VT or VF, butdetermines that pulsatile blood flow is not present, the medical devicemay indicate the occurrence of PEA to the user so that appropriatetherapy may be provided to the patient (474). The medical device 419 mayindicate the need for the user to provide CPR, and/or may provideinstructions for the provision of CPR to the user (476). In someembodiments, the medical device 419 may trigger automatic delivery ofCPR via a CPR delivery device, which may be a component of the medicaldevice.

FIG. 28 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device 419 to report the return of spontaneous circulation(ROSC) in a patient after delivery of a defibrillation shock to thepatient. The medical device 419 delivers a defibrillation shock to thepatient via electrodes 420A and 420B (482). The medical device 419transmits light into the patient (484), and receives the transmittedlight (486) to generate a light detection signal according to any of theabove-described techniques (488). The medical device 419 processes thelight detection signal to determine whether pulsatile blood flow ispresent according to any of the above-described techniques (490). If themedical device 419 determines that pulsatile blood flow is present, themedical device indicates ROSC to a user (492). If the medical device 419determines that pulsatile blood flow is not present, the medical devicemay prompt a user for delivery of, or automatically deliver anotherdefibrillation shock via electrodes 420A and 420B.

FIG. 29 is a flow diagram illustrating an exemplary operation of amedical device, such as one of medical devices 419A-C, to deliver pacingtherapy to a patient. Specifically, FIG. 29 illustrates operation of amedical device 419 to automatically detect capture of the heart of thepatient by delivered pacing pulses based on pulsatile blood flow, andadjust the amplitude or timing of pacing pulses to maintain capture. Themedical device 419 may include pacing pulse generation and timingcircuitry known in the medical device arts, and may deliver pacingpulses via electrodes 420A and 420B, or other electrodes dedicated todelivery of pacing pulses.

The medical device 419 delivers a pacing pulse to the patient (502). Themedical device 419 transmits light into the patient (504), and receivesthe transmitted light (506) to generate a light detection signalaccording to any of the above-described techniques (508). The medicaldevice 419 processes the light detection signal to determine whetherpulsatile blood flow is present according to any of the above-describedtechniques (510).

Absence of pulsatile blood flow in response to delivery of a pacingpulse indicates that the pacing pulse did not capture the heart of thepatient. Consequently, the medical device may increase a voltage orcurrent pacing pulse amplitude, or decrease a timing interval used tocontrol delivery of the pacing pulse, in response to detection of anabsence of pulsatile blood flow subsequent to delivery of a pacing pulse(512). This technique may allow the medical device 419 to maintaincapture during delivery of a pacing therapy.

The invention additionally provides methods and algorithms as describedabove. The methods and algorithms presented above are not necessarilyinherently associated with any particular computing device or otherapparatus. Rather, various general purpose machines may be used withprograms in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may prove moreconvenient to construct more specialized apparatus to perform therequired method steps. The required structure for a variety of thesemachines is apparent from the description herein.

In all cases, it should be borne in mind the distinction between themethod of the invention itself and the method of operating a computingmachine. The present invention relates to both methods in general, andalso to steps for operating a computer and for processing electrical orother physical signals to generate other desired physical signals.

The invention additionally provides programs and methods of programoperation. A program is generally defined as a group of steps leading toa desired result. A program made according to an embodiment of theinvention is most advantageously implemented as a program for acomputing machine, such as a defibrillator 10 or other equipment housinga general purpose computer, a special purpose computer, amicroprocessor, etc.

The invention also provides storage media that, individually or incombination with others, have stored thereon instructions of a programmade according to the invention. A storage medium according to theinvention is a computer-readable medium, such as a memory 40 as notedabove, and is read by the computing machine mentioned above.

It is readily apparent that the steps or instructions of a program madeaccording to an embodiment of the invention requires physicalmanipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily,these quantities may be transferred, combined, compared, and otherwisemanipulated or processed according to the instructions, and they mayalso be stored in a computer-readable medium. These quantities include,for example, electrical, magnetic, and electromagnetic signals, and alsostates of matter that can be queried by such signals. It is convenientat times, principally for reasons of common usage, to refer to thesequantities as signal data, bits, data bits, samples, values, symbols,characters, images, terms, numbers, or the like. It should be borne inmind, however, that all these and similar terms are associated with theappropriate physical quantities, that these terms are merely convenientlabels applied to these physical quantities.

This detailed description is presented largely in terms of flowcharts,display images, algorithms, processes, and symbolic representations ofoperations of data bits within at least one computer readable medium.The present description achieves an economy in that a single set offlowcharts is used to describe both methods of the invention andprograms according to the invention. Such descriptions andrepresentations are the type of convenient labels used by those skilledin programming and/or data processing arts to effectively convey thesubstance of their work to others skilled in the art. A person skilledin the art of programming may use these descriptions to readily generatespecific instructions for implementing a program according to thepresent invention.

Often, and for the sake of convenience only, it is preferred toimplement and describe a program as various interconnected distinctsoftware modules or features, individually and collectively also knownas software, though such modules may equivalently be aggregated into asingle program with unclear boundaries. The software modules or featuresof the present invention may be implemented by themselves, or incombination with others. Although the program may be stored in acomputer-readable medium, such as a memory 40, a person skilled in theart will readily recognize that it need not be a single memory, or evena single machine. Various portions, modules, or features of the programmay reside in separate memories, or even separate machines. The separatemachines may be connected directly, or through a network, such as alocal area network (LAN), or a global network, such as the Internet, bywired or wireless connections. For example, a data acquisition unit maycollect the accelerometer signal data obtained in the present inventionand communicate the data to a remote computing machine for analysis andreport whether a cardiac pulse is present.

It will be appreciated that some of the methods described herein mayinclude software steps that can be performed by different modules of anoverall software architecture. For example, data forwarding in a routermay be performed in a data plane, which consults a local routing table.Collection of performance data may also be performed in a data plane.The performance data may be processed in a control plane, whichaccordingly may update the local routing table, in addition toneighboring ones. A person skilled in the art will discern which step isperformed in which plane.

In any event, in the present case, methods of the invention areimplemented by machine operations. In other words, embodiments ofprograms of the invention are made such that they perform methods of theinvention as described above. These may optionally be performed inconjunction with one or more human operators performing some, but notall of them. As per the above, these need not be co-located with eachother, but each only with a machine that houses a portion of theprogram. Alternatively, some of these machines may operateautomatically, without users and/or independently from each other.

While various exemplary embodiments of the invention have beenillustrated and described herein, persons having ordinary skill in theart will recognize variations of the same that are fully with the scopeof the invention. Embodiments of the invention described herein areshown processing digital physiological signal data. However, theinvention also includes embodiments in which the physiological signaldata is not converted to digital form, but remains in analog form.References to “data” thus encompass both digital and analog signalformats. Moreover, references to “physiological signal data” may referto a raw physiological signal itself or signal information derived fromthe physiological signal in either digital or analog form. Variousembodiments of the invention have been described. These and otherembodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: transmitting lightinto a patient from a light source positioned external to the patient;receiving the transmitted light at a sensor positioned external to thepatient; generating a light detection signal in response to the receivedlight, the light detection signal having a first amplitude and a firstshape at a first time; monitoring, over a period of monitored time, thelight detection signal for changes in at least one of the firstamplitude and the first shape; detecting, at a second time, at least oneof a second amplitude and a second shape of the light detection signal;comparing the at least one of the second amplitude and the second shapewith a corresponding at least one of the first amplitude and the firstshape; analyzing, with a processor, the compared at least one of thesecond amplitude and the second shape to detect a trend that thepatient's pulse is detected and is becoming weaker over the period ofmonitored time; determining that the patient's pulse is weakening overthe period of monitored time based on the detected trend; and providingat least one of treatment and information concerning treatment based onthe determined-weakening patient pulse.
 2. The method of claim 1,further comprising: detecting a temperature; and adjusting the lightdetection signal based on the detected temperature.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, in which transmitting light comprises: transmitting a firstlight into the patient at a first wavelength; and transmitting a secondlight into the patient at a second wavelength, and in which receivingthe transmitted light comprises receiving the first light and the secondlight.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the first wavelength isassociated with a first level of optical transmission and the secondwavelength is associated with a second level of optical transmissionthat is greater than the first level of optical transmission.
 5. Themethod of claim 3, in which the first light is red light and the secondlight is near-infrared light.
 6. The method of claim 1, in whichtransmitting light comprises: transmitting a first light into thepatient at a first intensity; and transmitting a second light into thepatient at a second intensity, and in which receiving light comprisesreceiving the first light and the second light.
 7. The method of claim1, in which the at least one of the second amplitude and the secondshape are less than the at least one of the first amplitude and thefirst shape.
 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising monitoring,over the period of monitored time, the first light detection signal andthe second light detection signal for an artifact, the artifactdistinguishable from the change in the at least one of the amplitude andthe shape of the at least one of the first light detection signal andthe second light detection signal.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein theartifact is caused by an environment surrounding the patient.
 10. Themethod of claim 8, further comprising adjusting the detected trend basedon the artifact.
 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising, inresponse to the determined-weakening patient pulse, at least one of:prompting for CardioPulmonary Resuscitation; indicating a spontaneousreturn to circulation; indicating Pulseless Electrical Activity; anddelivering defibrillation therapy.
 12. A method comprising: transmittinglight into a patient from a light source positioned external to thepatient; receiving the transmitted light at a sensor positioned externalto the patient; generating a light detection signal in response to thereceived light, the light detection signal having a first amplitude anda first shape at a first time; monitoring, over a period of monitoredtime, the light detection signal for changes in at least one of thefirst amplitude and the first shape; detecting, at a second time, atleast one of a second amplitude and a second shape of the lightdetection signal; comparing the at least one of the second amplitude andthe second shape with a corresponding at least one of the firstamplitude and the first shape; analyzing, with a processor, the comparedat least one of the second amplitude and the second shape to detect thatthe patient's pulse is detected and is becoming weaker over the periodof monitored time; determining that the patient's pulse is weakeningover the period of monitored time based on the detection of thepatient's pulse and the detection that the patient's pulse is becomeweaker over the period of monitored time; and providing at least one oftreatment and information concerning treatment based on thedetermined-weakening patient pulse.
 13. The method of claim 12, furthercomprising, in response to the determined-weakening patient pulse, atleast one of: prompting for CardioPulmonary Resuscitation; indicating aspontaneous return to circulation; indicating Pulseless ElectricalActivity; and delivering defibrillation therapy.
 14. A method,comprising: generating light at a first wavelength corresponding to afirst level of tissue and blood absorption; generating light at a secondwavelength corresponding to a second level of tissue and bloodabsorption; transmitting the light at the first wavelength into apatient at a first time; transmitting the light at the second wavelengthinto the patient at a second time; receiving the transmitted first lightand the transmitted second light; generating a first light detectionsignal based on the received first light and a second light detectionsignal based on the received second light; monitoring, over a period ofmonitored time, the first light detection signal and the second lightdetection signal for changes in at least one of an amplitude and a shapeof at least one of the first light detection signal and the second lightdetection signal; detecting a change in the at least one of theamplitude and the shape of the at least one of the first light detectionsignal and the second light detection signal, the detected changedetected within the period of monitored time; and analyzing, with aprocessor, the detected change for an indication of a trend that thepatient's pulse is detected and is becoming weaker over the period ofmonitored time; and determining that the patient's pulse is weakeningover the period of monitored time based on the indication of the trend.15. The method of claim 14, further comprising generating a prompt for acaregiver to administer treatment to the patient based on thedetermined-weakening pulse.
 16. The method of claim 14, furthercomprising monitoring, over the period of monitored time, the firstlight detection signal and the second light detection signal for anartifact, the artifact distinguishable from the change in the at leastone of the amplitude and shape of the at least one of the first lightdetection signal and the second light detection signal.
 17. The methodof claim 16, wherein the artifact is caused by an environmentsurrounding the patient.
 18. The method of claim 16, further comprisingadjusting the detected change based on the artifacts.
 19. The method ofclaim 14, wherein the first wavelength is associated with a first levelof optical transmission and the second wavelength is associated with asecond level of optical transmission.